Editor's Note: Chinese civilization, among the world's four ancient civilizations, flows on till today. The everlasting inner cohesion of Chinese civilization comes from the Chinese written character system, Confucianism, the traditional economic system and the Chinese nation. Furthermore, the inclusiveness of Chinese civilization eventually plays a decisive role in China's journey towards a modern nation-state.

What are the roots of Chinese civilization? How do Chinese people view their culture in today's globalized world? How do young people understand cultural confidence? Prof. Cho-yun Hsu, a historian who does lifelong research into Chinese culture and history, shared his opinion on the roots of Chinese civilization and his understanding of its future.

The Everlasting Inner Cohesion of Chinese Civilization

According to Hsu, the everlasting internal cohesion of Chinese civilization comes from several aspects: the Chinese written character system, Confucianism, the economic system, and the Chinese nation.

After the standardization of Chinese characters during Qin Shi Huang's rule, the Chinese character system has continuously developed over generations. This development was closely related to the integration of Chinese culture. Chinese characters are hieroglyphs that rely on visual cues to convey meaning, which enables people from different regions to communicate effectively despite dialectal differences. Despite several local variations across a vast territory and population, Chinese culture maintains a significant cultural uniformity. The political landscape could change, but the cultural association was vital for the Chinese community to preserve its coherence and consistency. In brief, ancient ethnic groups across a vast territory could progress as the identical character system acted as a medium for cultural development during interethnic communication.

Secondly, Confucianism profoundly influences individuals' cultural beliefs and practices due to its long-standing prevalence. Its impact on acculturation is significant. There are several branches of Confucianism with Legalism being one among them. Legalist principles governed the state of Qin. Although Huangdi's and Laozi's learning were briefly honored after the Han Dynasty, Confucianism soon superseded them. Overall, the Han Dynasty was established on Confucianism without and Legalism within. Local officials made constant efforts to promote Confucianism even in remote areas and its acculturation capacity was enhanced. The central idea in Chinese universal order emerged in the integration of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. "Men" are noble and it is through their "inner world" that the universe is displayed and comprehended. The ideologies of "the realm is set by one's inner world" in Buddhism and "human effort is the decisive factor" in Confucianism were integrated in Chinese culture.

Thirdly, in the ancient Chinese economy, agriculture was the predominant mode of production. The major commodities in China's ancient market economy were crops and handicraft products. These commodities were distributed by a range of dealers, from wholesalers to retailers, and eventually to consumers throughout the country. The market networks also acted as channels for the circulation of resources and the distribution of wealth in China. China was a vast country with a large economy. The effective development of the economy in China was due to the interdependence of its various sectors. The exchange function enabled the country to form a cohesive and indivisible economic community. The national road system integrated this community into a complete network and its different regions became highly interdependent. Since then, it has become the standard economic practice in China, and the integration of economic systems has strengthened cultural unity.

Over centuries of national integration and reform, China has grown into a multi-ethnic nation by absorbing countless elements of different ethnic groups from the north to the south. This nation is defined neither by race nor by bloodline, but by its cultural traditions with unity in diversity.

Despite its large population and expansive territory, the aforementioned factors ensured seamless communication across the country without exclusion. This fostered a collective sense of identity among Chinese citizens. The migration of people across China provided opportunities for various groups to intermingle, and more significantly, it bolstered the unity of Chinese culture. The evolution of Chinese civilization has been characterized by gradual progress rather than abrupt changes or even disruptions. As a result, the notion of "Zhongguo" (China) as a unified nation can persist for an extended period of time.

The inclusiveness of Chinese civilization in welcoming foreign influences rather than rejecting them

Chinese culture takes pride in its ability to embrace diverse cultural elements and integrate them seamlessly. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, fundamental elements of culture such as inclusiveness were established, paving the way for the formation of a strong central power. The Zhou people were able to assimilate a range of cultural elements, thereby creating a multicultural and complex society with multiple ethnic groups of distinct origins. The feudal system facilitated cultural integration in China over several centuries. Essentially, the upper classes of the eastern kingdoms during the pre-Zhou era abided by feudal customs, which helped create cultural homogeneity in upper-class communities. This homogeneity was further strengthened during the Western Zhou Dynasty. However, heterogeneous local cultures continued to exist among the lower and middle classes of various ducal kingdoms. The pattern of pluralism with a single centrality (or unity in plurality), which resembles that in the Nile River basin, exemplified enhanced cultural inclusiveness. It had the flexibility to resolve internal contradictions amidst overall growth and decline.

Confucianism emerged as the prevailing ideology in Chinese culture during the Qin and Han Dynasties. This cultural system, which posits "Man" as the ontological foundation, diverges from the western perspective, which places "God" at the forefront. Consequently, Chinese culture boasts a remarkable aptitude for assimilating diverse cultural elements, continually integrating them and generating new concepts. Chinese culture has undergone various fluctuations over the course of thousands of years, and the people within this cultural sphere have undergone countless interactions and integrations. Upon examining the trajectory of Chinese cultural development, the most prominent aspect is its ability to assimilate elements from diverse cultures and strive for mutual progress. Throughout history, Chinese people have had a proclivity for assimilating the essence of foreign and diverse cultures, which they then integrate into their own cultural system. When the Chinese ideological system tended towards being arbitrary or rigid, there have been internal corrections made to ensure that Chinese culture remains up-to-date.

The Concept of "China" in the Dynasties of Song, Liao, Jin and XiXia

Successive minority political entities including the Liao, Jin, and Xixia, were located in close proximity to the territory of the Song Dynasty. These states were founded by the Khitan, Jurchen, and Tangut people respectively, and were collectively known as "Taugast" by Central Asian peoples. Silk and chinaware from China's Central Plains were transported to Central Asia over land via the Liao and Xixia, and by sea to the regions surrounding the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Westerners were aware that these commodities mostly originated from East Asia. Liao, Jin and Xixia had periods of both war and peace with the Song. The Song believed that peaceful trade with these political entities was mutually beneficial. Conversely, the interactions between Liao, Jin and Xixia were focused on commodity exchange and trade, with the goal of avoiding any violence or hostility. Through frequent communication and trade, various ethnic groups have largely embraced Chinese culture. The scholars of Liao and Xixia have taken on Chinese education and disseminated Chinese classics, leading to the possibility of China forming a united community as a result of the aforementioned cultural exchange.     

China's journey towards a modern nation-state

The military forces do not determine the comprehensive power of a country, instead, cohesive forces in the national spirit and supporting systems are indispensable. The term "Chinese nation" was introduced by Liang Chi-Chao in 1902, and the concept "nation-state" stemmed from this. According to him, when referring to the Chinese nation, it should encompass more than mere nationalism. A broader interpretation of nationalism should be promoted. What exactly does narrow nationalism constitute? It refers to the Han group and other ethnic groups in China as counterparts. Nationalism, in its broad sense, encompasses every ethnic group in China and includes foreigners as counterparts. The Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui and Miao communities all contribute and are members of the Chinese nation. Looking retrospectively at China's journey towards a modern nation-state, its advances can primarily be ascribed to its illustrious pre-1840 history and the shared painful recollection of humiliation between 1840 and 1949.The Revolution of 1911 was the breakout point of people's longing for change. It was the appeal of nationalism among Chinese people. It touched the heartstrings of the people's grief and indignation at the time. Therefore, it became the main reason for the successful overthrow of the Qing Dynasty by the National Revolution.

The concept of a nation-state originated in Europe. It was adopted during the Chinese revolution to resist Western colonial imperialism. Today, China should not mechanically apply Western ideas to its narrow understanding of ethnic groups, nor rely on faith to accommodate different ethnic groups, let alone exclude others as residents. China initially aimed to be a country that benefited all of its people. Under the universal concept of China, various ethnic groups are included. China is a cultural concept that embraces diversity. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, China has absorbed the cultures of different ethnic groups in East Asia. Today, the Han people identify themselves as descendants of the Chinese, and other ethnic groups believe their ancestors share the same origin as the Han. The longevity of Chinese civilization can be attributed to its cultural, rather than genetic, definition of nationality. Such an approach enables the country to align with the demands of contemporary "globalization" and to pursue national rejuvenation. The longevity of Chinese civilization can be attributed to its cultural, rather than genetic, definition of nationality. Such an approach enables the country to align with the demands of contemporary "globalization" and to pursue national rejuvenation. The longevity of Chinese civilization can be attributed to its cultural, rather than genetic, definition of nationality. China has already achieved success in this respect, as evidenced by its historical experience. The extent to which the portrayal of the Chinese nation can evolve into a global and universal value, similar to the ancient Confucianism, depends heavily upon the sagacity of the forthcoming generations.

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina. The author is Cho-Yun Hsu, historian, University Professor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh.