Editor's Note: In ancient times, continental Europe and China were roughly the same in land area. However, they took different approaches to governance, with the former divided into multiple small countries while the latter becoming a unified multi-ethnic nation. This difference may be attributed to their respective geographical conditions, economic structures, political systems, and cultural inheritance.

History and origin

From a geographical perspective, the ancient land of China was home not only to the forefathers of the Han people but also to other ethnic groups, who were collectively referred to in the pre-Qin classics as Rong, Di, Yi, and Man, the four marginal tribes. The Han people and these four tribes lived in harmony with each other, and together they created the Chinese nation.

In 221 BC, the state of Qin unified six warring states and established the first unified multi-ethnic country (221-207 BC) in China's history. They unified Chinese script, standardized carriage tracks, weights and measures, and recognized the same established principles in all the relations of life. These policies laid the foundation for the feudal social system that functioned for over 2,000 years. They also facilitated economic integration, promoted the formation of shared culture, ethics, and values, and laid a solid foundation for forging a strong sense of community for the Chinese nation.

The Chinese nation, comprising mainly the Han people, began to take shape in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220). The cultural integration of various ethnic groups during the periods of Kingdom of Wei (220-265), Jin Dynasty (265-420), and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589) promoted the development of the Chinese nation as a community. This momentum kept building, leading to extensive interactions, exchanges and integration among ethnic groups in the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) Dynasties. During the following Five Dynasties and Ten States (907-979), Liao (907-1125), Song (960-1279), Xixia (1038-1227), Jin (1115-1234), and Yuan (1206-1368), the feudal mode of production continued to expand to border areas, culminating in the great wave of national integration in China. The governance capacity of this multi-ethnic country was consolidated in an unprecedented way in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1616-1911) dynasties, with enhanced economic and cultural relations among various ethnic groups under a unitary system.

On the other hand, Europe, located in the western part of the Eurasian continent, had a notable geographical feature: natural land fragmentation. The entire European continent was divided into numerous geographical units, each relatively independent and lacking a strong inherent need for unity. Additionally, none of the units possessed an overwhelming advantage over the others, resulting in a relatively decentralized economic structure and a political landscape with multiple countries that are not subordinate to one another.

The Chinese concept of national unity

In the long history of China, the separation of political powers was temporary, whereas political unity was enduring. The so-called "split" only referred to the rivalry between local authorities, while the economic structure, social system, and cultural inheritance of the Chinese nation remained as a whole. The central plains and the border regions, the Han people and various ethnic minorities made the same community in both history and reality. A close-up look at the evolution of the Chinese nation shows that in the progress of civilization, the duration and scale of the split decreased, while unity extended in duration and became strengthened. It is safe to say that each split is a transition towards a higher level of unity.

Ancient China also had numerous city-states coexisting, similar to those in ancient Greece. However, gradually these city-states merged and developed into regional kingdoms, which later were unified into the first empire in Chinese history – the Qin Dynasty. Since then, such political fragmentation, like city-states, has no longer emerged in China's history.

In ancient China, even in periods of division, both the Han people and ethnic minorities pursued the goal of "unity under heaven" and believed that only the empire they established was the legitimate and authoritative ruler of China. Their dynastic systems were all built on the systems practiced in the Qin and Han dynasties, with no fundamental changes to the overall economic, political, and cultural structures.

The reason for this phenomenon is that various ethnic groups had lived together for a long time, forming a complementary yet integrative way of production and living. This gave rise to a civilization that is very inclusive and assimilative, enabling the Chinese people to develop a strong cohesion among themselves based on their commonalities. This way of production and living remained unchanged even in periods of division, and the same with the political system. Also, the collective consciousness remained intact, and the culture continued to evolve, which is reflected in the notion of "great unity" for the state and the understanding of the Chinese nation as a whole.

In ancient China, an emperor was called "tianzi" (son of heaven), and unity was regarded as "a mandate from heaven". In comparison with the concept of "state", there was an even broader political concept known as "tianxia" (all under heaven). The notion of "tian" (heaven) represents the sanctified expression of laws governing nature and social development. In fact, the ancient Chinese view of the state was closely associated with their values and view of the world that all things under heaven were unified.

Ancient Europe, however, was essentially in a state similar to that of the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC-476 BC) and Warring States Period (475 BC-221 BC) in ancient China. The Roman Empire came closest to becoming a unified state in ancient European history, but unfortunately it failed to have a common currency, a common language and writing system, as well as the integration of different ethnic groups. Neither did it establish a unified cultural ideology. Eventually, the empire collapsed and split apart. The prolonged state of division made it difficult for people to reach a unified consensus, build cohesion, and achieve "balanced harmony".

The impact of Chinese culture

A prominent characteristic of the Chinese culture is "heaven and man are united as one", a world outlook that emphasizes the integration and inherent relationship between heaven, earth and man, and "achieving balanced harmony", a social philosophy that believes that if a ruler can reach such a state of mind and exercise governance accordingly, everything in heaven and earth will be in its proper place, be orderly and in harmony, and shared prosperity and development for all will be delivered. This culture guides individuals to maintain harmony between their inner and outer selves, harmony between themselves and others, and harmony between individualism and collectivism. It also promotes harmony among different ethnic groups, so that people under heaven can unite and live as a family. Furthermore, it encourages humans to establish harmony with nature. Such a culture carries universal goodwill towards the world.

Chinese culture regards the individual, the society, the world, and the universe as an interconnected and harmonious continuum in time and space. Within this holistic perspective, there is an emphasis on "harmony in diversity". Chinese culture has never ceased to appreciate and draw on the achievements of other cultures. It is this openness and inclusiveness that makes the Chinese civilization the longest and uninterrupted one in the world.

The development and changes in the world today were never seen in any previous era. Nevertheless, although there are different cultures and political systems in the world, the relations and interactions between them are actually strengthening, leading to a convergence of civilizations. Mutual respect, understanding, learning, and inclusiveness are replacing conflicts between nations. The construction of "a community with a shared future for mankind" is becoming a significant trend in the development of world history. No doubt Chinese civilization, featuring a strong sense of community and inclusiveness, can play a more significant role in providing achievable pathways for global peace and development.

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.

The author is Lin Chaomin, professor at Yunnan University and curator of the Yunnan Provincial Institute of Literature and History Research.