Confucius, as a representative figure of Chinese culture, has had a profound impact globally. How has the image of Confucius changed in the United States? How does the change in attitude towards Confucius in American history reflect its recognition of China?

Confucianism introduced to American society

The thoughts of Confucius have profoundly influenced Chinese history and civilization. Since the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220), Confucian culture gradually became the cultural orthodoxy of China and spread to the surrounding regions. By the beginning of the first century, Confucianism had already become part of school curriculums in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and some other countries and regions.

The introduction of Confucianism to the United States, however, happened much later. In this process, Europe played an intermediary role, with the Catholic Jesuits playing a crucial part.

In 1583, Matteo Ricci became the first Jesuit missionary to arrive in China. With his profound knowledge of the Chinese language and culture, Ricci started translating Confucian classics.

In 1687, Prospero Intorcetta and 16 other missionaries from Italy collectively compiled an influential Latin overview of Chinese history and translation of some of the Confucian classics under the title Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese (Confucius Sinarum Philosophus). This book provides a detailed introduction to Confucius' life and includes texts such as The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and Analects of Confucius, becoming the first systematic translation of Confucian thought in the Western world.

After the publication of this book, the Jesuits and Enlightenment thinkers compiled various works introducing Confucianism, which subsequently made their way to North American colonies.

In 1709, the name of Confucius appeared for the first time in newspapers in Britain's North American colonies. From 1737 to 1743, the famous American scientist and politician, Benjamin Franklin serialized the content of The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean in two newspapers he edited. Other media also excerpted and published them, while educational materials included anecdotes about Confucius and selected Confucian quotes as reading materials.

To facilitate readers' understanding, early American books used European figures as reference points when introducing Confucius. For example, they would mention that shortly after Confucius was born, the ancient Athenian politician Solon passed away, and seven years after Confucius' death, Socrates was born.

How was Confucius perceived in early American society?

In the early days, Jesuit missionaries adopted a strategy of blending Chinese and Western cultures, incorporating idealized elements from the image of Confucius in China to portray Confucius as morally perfect and of noble character. However, they naturally maintained some reservations in their praise, as they did not want to elevate him above Christ. As a result, Confucius became a Chinese thinker endowed with exceptional talents but still inferior to Christ.

In the early United States, there was a wealth of information about Confucius, and the prevailing understanding was that he was virtually impeccable in terms of personal conduct.

Today, the United States takes pride in its political system but ignores the fact that early Americans adopted European Enlightenment ideas and frequently referenced Confucian sayings in political debates. Benjamin Franklin believed that once prominent figures set an example in societal reform, the common people would follow suit. This belief was derived from Confucian philosophy.

Another important thought that Confucius provided to early American politics was that politicians should hold themselves to high standards and empathize with public sentiment. They regarded the Founding President George Washington as an exemplar of Confucian political character. John Quincy Adams, who served as the sixth President from 1825 to 1829, was also compared to Confucius due to his high moral character.

Why did the image of Confucius change in 19th-century American society?

In the 1820s and 1830s, newspapers established by British and American businessmen in China portrayed Confucius and Confucianism as a cause of China's stagnation and the hindrance to its progress. These negative messages were then transmitted back to the United States.

Apart from businessmen, American missionaries also bear certain responsibility for the changing image of Confucius in American society. Departing from the earlier Jesuit strategy of blending Chinese and Western cultures, American missionaries looked down on Chinese culture, particularly the Confucian ideology at its core. On their return to the U.S., they propagated a highly negative image of Confucius alongside the already disseminated positive image.

With the success of the European Industrial Revolution, a Eurocentric perspective emerged, leading to a reversal of admiration for Asian civilizations, especially Chinese civilization. Western values became the benchmark against which all other civilizations and nations were measured, resulting in the devaluation of other cultures.

The Americans adopted this mindset, considering Western ideas and systems superior to Confucian thought and the Chinese institutions influenced by it. However, Western moral philosophers still acknowledged the ethical teachings of Confucius. This resulted in a dichotomous image of Confucius in America: While Americans recognized Confucius' ethical and moral philosophy, they downplayed the political value of his ideas.

In 1943, with the collaborative efforts of China and the U.S. in combating fascism on both Eastern and Western fronts, the United States rectified its past mistakes and repealed its Chinese Exclusion Act. Consequently, the negative image of Confucius in American society began to recede, and the association of this negativity with Chinese people significantly diminished. Confucius' ethical and moral philosophy also briefly became an ideological weapon in resolving international conflicts.

A microcosm of American perceptions of China

Essentially, it is influenced by political and racial factors.It is difficult to understand the true perception of Confucius by Americans if one assumes that Confucius is inevitably loved and respected by all American people. The position of Confucius in American culture is very different from that in Chinese culture.

In the American view of Chinese culture and China as a country, there is a pervasive sense of American superiority and Western centrism. Christianity, American interests, and the patriarchy influence how America interprets Confucian thought, Chinese culture, and China itself, shaping their attitude towards China and the Chinese people.

Cultural exchange and globalization are not about Americanization or Westernization but rather are two-way or even multi-directional processes. As their society shapes Americans' image of Confucius, Confucian thought also influences American society. When not involving China or the Chinese people, the American portrayal of Confucius appears more objective. Confucius' principles of personal conduct and governing a country are respected and are often quoted by the media as aspirations and guidelines for Americans.

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.

The article is based on the interview with Zhang Tao, Director of the Institute of American Studies at Sichuan International Studies University