The Chinese Han Dynasty, established in 202 BC and lasted until AD 220, and the Roman Empire, which existed from 200 BC to AD 300, were two formidable forces that dominated their respective regions during the same historical period. They faced similar challenges and shared similarities in terms of economic scale, territorial expanse, population size, and military power.

While the unified China continued to thrive and maintain its status as a global powerhouse even to this day following the collapse of the Han Dynasty, the Roman Empire, once it fell, could not regain its former glory. As a result, Europe entered a subsequent era characterized by the rise of numerous smaller nations. This stark contrast in the later fortunes of the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire begs the question: What factors contributed to their divergent paths?

Two distinct political entities

During the Han Dynasty in China, a strong sense of ethnic identity had already taken shape, contrasting with the Roman Empire which was primarily a conquering system consisting of Roman city-states and various provinces with diverse ethnic backgrounds. In essence, it could be argued that the Roman Empire did not possess the characteristics of a unified country. This fundamental distinction in nature stands as the most notable contrast between the Chinese Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire.

Rome, in terms of its origins, was initially a city-state characterized by the institution of slavery. Situated on the Apennine Peninsula, it emerged and grew near the Greek realm. With a significant population of Latin inhabitants, Rome became home to a diverse community. The political structure within the city-state encompassed both Roman and later Latin citizens, together forming a cohesive political entity. On the external front, Rome engaged in three Punic Wars, expanding steadily and eventually evolving into a formidable empire. This empire went on to establish a sprawling dominion that spanned across Europe, Asia, and Africa.

However, it is important to note that the comparison between the Roman Empire and the Chinese Han Dynasty does not simply involve the city-state of Rome on the Apennine Peninsula and the Han Dynasty. Rather, the comparison often extends to the expansive Roman Empire that encompassed Europe, Asia, and Africa and the Han Dynasty. It is crucial to recognize that these two entities are fundamentally distinct and cannot be truly compared on an equal footing.

One crucial distinction between the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire lies in the absence of a cohesive ethnic identity, well-defined borders, as well as a common spoken and written language in the latter.

According to Octavian, the father of the Roman Empire, in the Record of the Works of Sacred Augustus (Res Gestae Divi Augusti), the population of the Roman people (including Roman citizens and Latin citizens) in the core region of the empire was as follows:

• • l28 BC: 4.063 million people

• • l8 BC: 4.233 million people

• • lAD 14: 4.937 million people

At that time, the total population of the entire Roman Empire was approximately 56.8 million. It is evident that 4.937 million Romans in the core region constituted less than 10% of the total population within the empire.

During that period, the inhabitants living under the governance of the Roman Empire were broadly categorized into four classes: Roman citizens, Latin citizens, free individuals from various nations, and slaves. Roman citizens enjoyed the highest social standing, with Latin citizens occupying a position between Roman citizens and the free individuals from other nations. Initially, the majority of Latin citizens resided in the Apennine Peninsula, but eventually, their population extended to several provinces.

The demographic makeup of the Roman Empire clearly demonstrates its status as a vast empire with Rome at its core. This empire consisted of a combination of city-states centered around Rome and 45 provinces located on the Apennine Peninsula.

The Roman provinces were territories outside the Italian Peninsula that were conquered and governed by the Roman city-state. The term "province" derives from the Latin word "provincial," which is formed from the Latin elements "pro" and "vincere," meaning "victory" or "control." Through military conquests, the Roman Empire expanded its borders, encompassing a population of over 50 million people who were organized into various social classes. The empire's demographic composition testified to its power and capabilities as it unified diverse peoples and cultures under its rule.

The Western concept of colonization has its roots in the Roman Empire. The modern Western term "colony" is derived from the Latin word "colonia," referring to the advanced bases established by the Roman Empire in colonial regions. In this sense, the Roman Empire was a conquering system consisting of a suzerain centered on Rome and the conquered colonies.

From the demographic composition and formation process of the Roman Empire, it can be seen that Rome was a political community where a minority conquered and ruled over diverse ethnicities through military means, raising doubts about the sense of internal identity within the empire.

The Roman Empire: lack of a cohesive bond

The coexistence of multiple languages and the lack of a unified written language made it difficult to consolidate the vast Roman Empire into a cohesive community.

Roman culture drew heavily from Greek culture, adopting many aspects and customs. During ancient Rome, the Greek language was widely embraced by the upper class. An exemplary figure, Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, composed his renowned work Meditations in Greek. While Greek found favor among the cultural elites, it also held a significant presence in parts of the empire, particularly in the eastern regions. Simultaneously, other languages, such as Punic, Coptic, Aramaic, Syriac, and Celtic, coexisted within the empire. This linguistic diversity is evident from the abundance of inscriptions and letters unearthed through archaeological discoveries.

The Roman Empire suffered from a significant absence of cultural and ethnic identity among its population due to diverse ethnicities, languages, and identities. This lack of a cohesive bond posed a major challenge for Roman emperors when confronted with relentless invasions from pre-conquered and/or enslaved tribes. Uniting the different ethnic groups within the empire to mount a collective resistance against the invaders proved to be an arduous task.

Therefore, in 212, to strengthen internal cohesion against external threats, Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus issued the Constitutio Antoniniana (also called Antonine Constitution), granting Roman citizenship to all freeborn males within the Roman Empire.

Nevertheless, developing ethnic identity is a complex and time-consuming process, far from being quickly resolved by a simple decree. In fact, the implementation of the Constitutio Antoniniana not only failed to promote unity but led to confusion and heightened conflicts across the empire. Various dissatisfied tribes within the empire sought to increase their influence, while centrifugal forces became more pronounced in the Greek-speaking regions of the east.

The Roman Empire: never truly unified

When delving into the history of the Roman Empire, it becomes apparent that the question of "Why didn't the Roman Empire undergo a reconstruction after its downfall?" is considerably deceiving. Fundamentally, the Roman Empire never achieved true cohesion and unification.

Throughout the course of human history, the resurgence of collapsed empires has proven to be a formidable undertaking. Be it the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire, the Empire of Alexander the Great, the Byzantine Empire, the Charlemagne Empire, the Mongol Empire, or the Ottoman Empire, none have successfully been rebuilt following their downfall.

The rationale behind this phenomenon is quite straightforward. Empires are characterized by their conquering system with diverse ethnicities and colonies, rather than possessing defined territories and specific ethnic identities. Consequently, empires lack the internal cohesion necessary for revival. Once an empire crumbles, the various ethnic groups within its borders, bound by their distinct ethnic identities, tend to assert their autonomy and forge new nations over time.

Following the downfall of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes that invaded the region intermingled with the indigenous population, resulting in the formation of distinctive ethnic groups and the rise of numerous small nations throughout Europe.

Although there were indeed individuals who harbored aspirations to revive the Roman Empire, their endeavors can be seen primarily as a rebranding of antiquated concepts, as they merely borrowed symbols from the Roman Empire to establish their own fledgling empires.

In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the "Emperor of the Romans." However, it is important to note that despite the use of the word "Roman," this coronation did not mark the revival of the Roman Empire. Instead, it was a short-lived empire that lasted only 43 years before giving rise to the emergence of France, Italy, and Germany as separate nations.

Another significant but empty symbol came in the year 962 with the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I, the King of East Francia. Despite its name persisting until 1806, the Holy Roman Empire can be seen as nothing more than a well-known but unsubstantial framework. As famously expressed by Voltaire, it was neither holy nor Roman and certainly did not possess the qualities of a true empire.

Great Unity in China

Chinese Han Dynasty, which followed the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC), was built upon the solid groundwork laid by its predecessor. Despite the brevity of the Qin Dynasty's rule, lasting a mere 15 years, it succeeded in establishing the foundation for a unified state.

Under the Han Dynasty's reign, the Chinese population had already reached approximately 50 million, signifying a significant demographic majority residing in the heartland of the Central Plains. This strikingly contrasts with the Roman Empire, where the Roman populace accounted for less than 10% of the total population encompassing the empire.

Unlike most ethnic groups across the globe, the formation of ethnic identities in China was primarily determined by the acknowledgment of Chinese culture. As the Central Plains culture consistently held a dominant position, a defining feature emerged where cultural identity played a crucial role in delineating ethnicities. The Central Plains culture, due to its absorptive capacity for various ethnic cultures, naturally became the core of the Chinese culture.

With the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC) by King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 – 256 BC), a new era began in the history of China. The Zhou people, not content with just establishing a vast feudal state, also fostered the growth of a comprehensive political culture. This remarkable development led the political and cultural systems in the Central Plains to surpass those of the surrounding ethnic groups during the Western Zhou period. As a result, the Northern Di, Southern Man, Western Rong, and Eastern Yi (distinct ethnic groups around the Central Plains), gradually integrated into the Chinese nation by embracing and adopting the advanced Central Plains culture.

After the Qin Dynasty was established by the first emperor Qin Shihuang in Chinese history, significant changes were implemented to lay the groundwork for a united empire. These changes included the abolition of the vassal enfeoffment system, the introduction of a system of prefectures and counties, the standardization of measurements for cart tracks, and the establishment of a uniform script. These reforms aligned with the prevailing historical trends of the era preceding the Qin Dynasty and contributed to creating a unified imperial state.

During the Han Dynasty, a comprehensive household registration system was introduced across the country. This system required extensive documentation, including names, ages, birthplaces, social status, appearance, wealth, and other relevant information, for all households under government management. This measure effectively reinforced the central government's authority at the local level, substantially bolstering the internal cohesion within the political community.

During the two millennia following the Han Dynasty, despite encountering invasions from foreign ethnic groups, numerous minority ethnic groups who gained control of the Central Plains eventually adopted the political and cultural systems of the Central Plains.

The Chinese nation has witnessed fluctuations and transitions in its long history, witnessing the rise and fall of countless dynasties. Remarkably, despite the ebb and flow of political power, the Chinese nation has not only survived but also demonstrated remarkable resilience and renaissance. At the heart of this lies the indomitable cohesion of Chinese culture.

The author is Han Zhu, a researcher at the China Institute of Fudan University and director of the Shangdao Institute for Social Research.

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.