At the end of the 1990s, as Western academia began to critique Orientalism and postcolonial studies, the traditional Western view of Xizang also began to be reevaluated. The spiritualized Xizang had been imagined as a romanticized "Shangri-La," a non-violent, green, and environmentally friendly place where men and women were equal, free of materialism, exploitation, and oppression, a paradise on earth where everyone pursued spiritual freedom and soul relief.

This portrayal, however was merely a fantasy based on an Orientalist mindset, which not only had nothing to do with Xizang traditions but also profoundly distorted communications with and about modern Xizang.

What unrealistic perceptions of Xizang does Western society have?

The "Imagined Xizang" is a worldwide cultural project spanning several centuries. In different eras, the East and the West have both conceptualized countless versions of Xizang that are often based on pure imagination.

The "Imagined Xizang" may contain positive or negative images; it may be heaven on earth or hell. However, these fictions have no connection with the real Xizang.

Since the beginning of the modern era and up to the present time, despite the fact that Xizang was no longer inaccessible, both Eastern and Western worlds have continued to imagine Xizang as their own "other," shaping its image as a world different from their own. They sometimes mythologized it, treating it as a utopia-like Shangri-La to support their aspirations; they sometimes demonized it, seeing it as an ignorant, stubborn, and cruel "heterotopia" combining the theocratic rule of the Roman Catholic Church with Oriental despotism. Such images tell us more about the imaginers' own concepts, culture, and social development but bear little relation to Xizang in reality.

By the 1980s, only a handful of foreigners had actually set foot on the soil of Xizang, but this did not prevent a proliferation of "Imagined Xizang." Some of them were pure fabrications written to satisfy readers' curiosity. Others, with their own imperialist, colonialist, and Orientalist agendas, intentionally constructed an image of Xizang that catered to their own expectations.

What are the underlying causes of the "Imagined Xizang"?

One of the reasons for these "Imagined Xizang" is Xizang's unique geographical location as the third pole of the world. In addition, its inaccessibility before the development of modern transport made it invisible and unreachable, thus stimulating people's natural curiosity and imagination.

Although the famous Italian traveler Marco Polo, for example, never went to Xizang, this did not prevent him from telling stories in his travelogues about the place. These were mere hearsay, but would have suited the hunches and imaginations of his European readership.

When a small number of Western missionaries began to visit Xizang, their imagined Xizang no longer stemmed from ignorance or curiosity, as in the past, but was derived from their own religious and ideological preconceptions, revealing obvious political and religious biases.

For example, Protestant missionaries who first arrived in Xizang often portrayed Xizang as a conservative and stubborn theocratic society similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church. Western missionaries and travelers of the colonial era labeled Xizang as a primitive society that was ignorant, backward, and barbaric. During the Victorian period, Western academics were keen on portraying Tibetan Buddhism as a kind of witchcraft that departed from mainstream Buddhist doctrine and practice. During the postmodern era, Westerners hailed Xizang as "Shangri-La," imagining it to be a spiritual supermarket for postmodern Western society.

The evolution of these images of Xizang reflects the course of development of Western society itself. Xizang is but a mirror they use to reflect themselves.

What is the negative impact of "Imagined Xizang"?

Whether mythologizing or demonizing Xizang, the "Imagined Xizang" has only had a negative impact on Xizang and the people living there, both historically and today. False or distorted images of Xizang may satisfy the needs of the imaginers but do nothing for the real Xizang.

Imagining Xizang as a barbaric and ignorant primitive society provided the best excuse for the religious infiltration and colonial invasion of Xizang by the West in past years. Imagining Xizang as a romanticized Shangri-La today misrepresents the real problems facing Xizang, which is still walking its road of modernization and globalization.

The "Imagined Xizang" tends to exacerbate misunderstandings and conflicts between China and the West over the questions related to Xizang, using an "Imagined Xizang" as the answer to the real problems faced by people there is, in fact, a new form of imperialist and colonialist behavior.

The authors are Shen Weirong, professor at Tsinghua University, and Shen Li, postdoctoral researcher at Department of Chinese History and Culture, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Zhang Rong /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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