In ancient China,Xinjiang was referred to as the Western Regions and has always been a regionwhere multiple ethnic groups coexisted. The present-day ethnic and populationdistribution in Xinjiang reflects a historical process of continual migration,flow and integration of various ethnic groups.

Examining thetapestry of history, it can clearly be seen that the impetus behind themigration and integration of ethnic groups in Xinjiang primarily originatedfrom the east. The Han people from the Central Plains were among the earliestethnic groups to enter Xinjiang, while the nomadic tribes from the northerngrasslands exerted significant influence on the migration and integration ofethnic groups in Xinjiang over an extended period.

Earlyethnic integration in Xinjiang

Prior to the Han dynasty(202 BC–AD220), Xinjiang was already home to a diverse mix of ethnic groups. Based onarchaeological, anthropological and historical studies, the originalinhabitants of Xinjiang migrated from the east and west during differenthistorical periods. Natural and geographical factors meant that exchangesbetween Xinjiang and the agrarian civilization of the Central Plains to theeast, as well as the nomadic cultures of the northern grasslands, were morefeasible compared to the west. Consequently, populations from the east steadilymigrated westward, forming the predominant demographic makeup of Xinjiang.

The Western Han dynasty(202 BC–AD 25)witnessed a vibrant period of migration from the Central Plains to Xinjiang.According to historical records, the Saka people residing in the Ili Riverbasin and the extensive region of the northern Syr Darya River were theearliest ancient ethnic group with a confirmed identity in Xinjiang's history.Starting from the Western Han dynasty, populations from the east beganmigrating westward to Xinjiang. Over the subsequent two millennia, Xinjiang'sethnic structure and population distribution have continued to shift.

During the early WesternHan dynasty, the Dayuezhi people, who had been active in the Hexi Corridor andits western reaches, were displaced by the Xiongnu people from the east. Theymigrated westward to the Ili River basin, forcing some Saka people to movesouth. A portion of these Saka people then settled in various oases on theperipheries of the Tarim Basin, where they established city-states such as Shule,Shache, Xiuxun and Yutian (Khotan). Later, under pressure from the Wusunpeople, the Dayuezhi moved even farther west to the Syr Darya River basin. The Wusun,in turn, occupied the Ili River basin and the vast region north of the TianshanMountains. With the rise of the Xiongnu, large numbers of them enteredXinjiang, defeating local ethnic groups and unifying the region.

Around the sametime, the Han people gradually made their way into Xinjiang. These earlyarrivals were referred to as the "Qin people" by Xinjiang locals.During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the imperial envoy Zhang Qian made twojourneys to the Western Regions, formally opening up a major passage to thewest and initiating official communication between the Central Plains and theWestern Regions.

In the firstcentury BC, the Western Han dynasty officially incorporated Xinjiang into itsgovernance system. Notably, in 60 BC, the Western Han government establishedthe Protectorate of the Western Regions in the city of Wulei (now in Luntaicounty, Xinjiang), leading to a substantial influx of Han people into Xinjiang,including officials and soldiers sent to defend and cultivate the border areas,merchants, as well as their families. By the end of the Han dynasty, the Hanpeople had become widespread throughout Xinjiang.

Since the Handynasty, more of China's ancient ethnic groups have migrated to Xinjiang.Particularly during the Wei Kingdom (220–265), Jin dynasty(265–420),and the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589), thefrequency of migrations and interactions among various ethnic groups increased.Among them, nomadic tribes from the north were predominant, making this perioda significant era of integration for northern ethnic groups in ancient China.For example, ethnic groups such as the Xianbei, Rouran, Yanda, Gaoche, Yuepanand Tuyuhun migrated successively to Xinjiang and became active in the areasnorth and south of the Tianshan Mountains.

Thesignificant wave of migration

The Tang dynasty(618–907)witnessed another significant wave of ethnic migration in Xinjiang, withsubstantial movements of Han, Tujue (Turkic), Tubo and Huihu (Uighur) peoplesto the region, profoundly shaping its historical trajectory.

First, the Tujue (Turkic)people. In the mid-sixth century, the Turkic people established the TurkicKhanate centered on Mobei (the area north of the vast deserts on the MongolianPlateau), ruling over Xinjiang and vast areas of the Mongolian steppe. Later,the Turkic Khanate split into eastern and western branches, and by themid-eighth century, both had collapsed, leading to the gradual integration ofXinjiang's Turkic people into other ethnic groups.

Next came the Hanpeople. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), a largenumber of Han people migrated to Xinjiang through avenues such as militaryservice, land reclamation projects, business ventures and voluntary migration.Records show that during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, there were over70,000 Han people in Yizhou (present-day Hami), Xizhou (present-day Turpan) andTingzhou (present-day Jimsar). In addition, there were approximately 30,000troops stationed along with tens of thousands of their family members in thefour townships administered under the Anxi Protectorate: Qiuci (present-dayKuqa), Yanqi (present-day Yanqi), Yutian (present-day Hotan) and Shule (present-dayKashi). It is estimated that at that time, the total population of Xinjiang wasonly a few hundred thousand, with Han people accounting for approximatelyone-third to one-half. The Tang government implemented the same systems inXinjiang as in other territories.

Additionally, manyTubo people also migrated to Xinjiang during this time. In 663, the Tubo regimeexpanded into present-day Qinghai Province and the southeast of Tarim Basin,sparking conflicts with the Tang dynasty over control of Xinjiang. Particularlyin 755, taking advantage of the Tang government's dispatching a large militaryforce from Xinjiang to quell the An Shi Rebellion, the Tubo regime launchedmilitary campaigns and occupied most of the areas north and south of theTianshan Mountains. Consequently, a large number of Tubo tribes began tomigrate into Xinjiang.

Lastly, there werethe Huihu (Uighur) people. The Huihu initially inhabited the Selenga River andOrkhon River basins. As early as the late fifth century, a portion of the Huihutribe had migrated to the Tianshan Mountains region. In the mid-eighth century,the Huihu established a regime in Mobei and engaged in intense competition withthe Tubo regime in Xinjiang at the late-eighth and early-ninth centuries,ultimately gaining control of some of the areas north of the TianshanMountains. In 840, the Huihu Khanate collapsed, leading to the mass migrationof its populace. Some of them migrated to the present-day Jimsar and Turpan,later establishing the Huihu Kingdom of Gaochang (Qocho Uighur Kingdom).Another faction migrated to the Central Asian steppe and Kashgar (present-dayKashi), where they, along with other ethnic groups, founded the Kara-KhanidKhanate.

Over thesubsequent centuries, the Huihu (Uighur) people migrating westward formed thecore, gradually evolving into the present-day Uygur ethnic group afterassimilating and integrating with some of the local Xinjiang residents, as wellas the Tujue (Turkic), Khitan, Mongol, Tubo, Qiang and Han populationsmigrating to Xinjiang.

Formationof ethnic distribution in north and south Xinjiang

During the Song(960–1127),Liao (907–1125),Jin (1115 –1234) and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties, a large number of ethnic groups fromgrassland regions, represented by the Khitans and the Mongols, moved toXinjiang.

In 1124, YelüDashi of the Liao dynasty led his troops westward, establishing the WesternLiao regime, leading to the movement of a group of Khitan people to Xinjiang.In the 13th century, the Mongols conducted three westward expeditions, with asignificant number of Jurchen, Khitan, Han, Huihu (Uighur) and Western Xiapeople among their ranks. This led to another wave of ethnic migrations, duringwhich many Han people were resettled by the Mongol government in Xinjiang for agriculturalpurposes.

The Mongols'westward expansion and their governance of Xinjiang further dismantled barriersbetween diverse ethnic groups, paving the way for the emergence of the Hui,Kazakh, Uzbek and other new ethnic groups.

Following the fallof the Yuan dynasty, the Eastern Chagatai Khanate and the Yarkant Khanate,established by descendants of Chagatai, continued to rule over much ofXinjiang. This period witnessed further integration and development of variousethnic groups in Xinjiang. Many Han people, Chagatai Mongols and other groupsintegrated into the Uygur community, while Kazakh, Kyrghyz, Uzbek and Tajikpeoples gradually emerged as distinct ethnic groups.

During the sameperiod, Mongolia was divided into areas of Tatar and Oirat ethnic groups, laterfragmenting further into Monan, Mobei and Moxi Mongolia—theareas south, north and west of the vast deserts on the Mongolian Plateau,respectively.

In the first halfof the 16th century, Moxi Mongolians (also known as the Oirats) were primarilyactive in the western Mongolian steppe. By the late 16th and early 17thcenturies, the Oirats migrated westward to the vast areas north of the TianshanMountains and the Irtysh River basin. After integrating surrounding ethnicgroups, eventually a situation developed whereby the Dzungar, Dorbod, Torghutand Khoshut peoples coexisted as the four major tribes.

In the late 17thcentury, the Dzungar tribe gained control over the Mongol Oirat tribe north ofthe Tianshan Mountains. Subsequently, the Torghut and Khoshut relocated to thelower reaches of the Volga River and Qinghai, respectively. The Dzungars laterconquered the Yarkant Khanate south of the Tianshan Mountains.

In the mid 18thcentury, the Qing dynasty (1616–1911) finally quelled the rebellions of the Dzungarsin northern Xinjiang and of the Altishahr Khojas in southern Xinjiang, therebyunifying the north and south of the Tianshan Mountains and establishingeffective governance. To strengthen control over and develop Xinjiang, the Qinggovernment organized large numbers of Manchu, Mongolian, Xibo, Solon (Daur),Han and Hui soldiers from the east to settle in Xinjiang.

At the same time,the government actively encouraged the Han and Hui peoples from the CentralPlains to migrate to Xinjiang, and organized the Uygurs from the south of theTianshan Mountains to cultivate land in Ili, northern Xinjiang. As a result,the Manchu, Xibo, Solon and other ethnic groups became new members ofXinjiang's diverse ethnic mosaic.

During the late19th to early 20th centuries, there was a significant influx of Russians,Uzbeks and Tatars into Xinjiang, who settled permanently.

By the founding ofthe People's Republic of China in 1949, Xinjiang was home to 13 indigenousethnic groups: the Uygur, Han, Mongolian, Manchu, Hui, Kazakh, Xibo, Kyrghyz,Daur, Russian, Tatar, Tajik and Uzbek groups. This created a demographiclandscape in Xinjiang where various ethnic groups spread over vast areas whilesome lived in individual concentrated communities in small areas.

Theauthor is Jia Jianfei, associate researcher at the Institute of ShanxiMerchants Studies, Shanxi University of Finance and Economics.

Liu Xian /Editor

YangXinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

ZhangWeiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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