History cannot be understood without archaeology. Xinjiang, China, is situated at a key point of the ancient Silk Road and possesses abundant cultural relics. Many historical and cultural remains distributed in the north and south of the Tianshan Mountains showcase the historical facts of the ancient Xinjiang as a confluence of Eastern and Western civilizations in ancient times, and demonstrate its deep integration with the Central Plains.

Migrations and cultural exchanges in prehistoric times

The archaeological remains in Xinjiang are fewer and from a later period compared with those in other regions of China, where there were human activities millions of years ago.

The earliest archaeological remain of human activity in Xinjiang is the Tongtiandong Site, a cave site from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic Age in Jeminay County, Altay, dating to 45,000 years ago. A large number of stone artifacts produced by the Levallois technique were unearthed there.

The Levallois is a stone-tool-making technique from the Paleolithic Age, characterized mainly by the careful preparation of the steinkerns before they are used to strike off flakes. The technique is hence also known as the steinkern preparing technique. It is a typical feature of the Mousterian culture, which appeared in Africa, Europe, and West Asia about 400,000 years ago, and it also prevailed in the Middle Paleolithic in Europe. This indicates that in the Late Paleolithic, this region has already embraced migrations and cultural exchanges between the East and the West of the Eurasian continent.

In addition, typical steinkern and flake techniques were also found at the southern foot of the Altay Mountains, the northern and southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains, and the Pamirs Plateau at the southern foot of the Kunlun Mountains. This provides new clues for exploring earlier Paleolithic cultures and the migration of early humans.

From 11,000 years ago to the Bronze Age, archeological remains of microlithic culture have been found on the banks of some major rivers in Xinjiang. There is evidence to suggest that around 11,000 years ago, the microlithic technology in the eastern end of the Tianshan Mountains had close ties with those in North China and Northeast Asia.

The discovery of microlithic remains also indicates that since the Late Paleolithic Age, humans in the Xinjiang region have primarily maintained an economy of hunting and gathering. Therefore, there was no emergence of a neolithic culture characterized by agriculture, animal husbandry, or pottery making.

Around 2500 BC, Xinjiang entered the Bronze Age, and around 1000 BC, the Iron Age. During this long period, cultural changes in the Xinjiang region were closely related to two massive migration events. One was the east-west convergence of migrants from inland Eurasia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and the other was the major migration of nomadic people from Asia and Europe around the 2nd century BC. Together, they facilitated the exchange between Eastern and Western civilizations and influenced the prehistoric culture of Xinjiang.

The Chemurchek Cemetery in Altay, Xiaohe Cemetery in Ruoqiang County, Gumugou Cemetery, Tianshan Beilu Cemetery in Hami City, and other cemeteries are representatives of the early Bronze Age culture in Xinjiang. According to the basic forms, funerary customs, and burial objects discovered in these tombs, Chemurchek culture may have connections with Yamnaya culture in Black Sea Region and Afanas'evo culture in Minusinsk Basin (now a mountain basin in southern East Siberia, Russia); the Tianshan Beilu Cemetery is close in style to those of Gansu and Qinghai provinces during the same period.

The Late Bronze Age culture of Xinjiang is represented by the Haiziyan Site in Balikun County in the East Tianshan area and the Jartai Pass Site in Nilka County in the West Tianshan area. The pottery for storing hill barley, tools such as stone hoes, stone mortars, stone grinding plates and grinding sticks, and numerous cattle, horse, and sheep bones unearthed there have demonstrated increasing frequencies of migrations and exchanges. During this period, the flourishing painted pottery culture of the Neolithic Age in Gansu and Qinghai spread so widely that it influenced both the pottery designs at the northern and southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains. Large settlement gradually took shape. Crops like panicum and millet originating from East Asia, and cereal crops like barley and wheat deriving from West Asia have been discovered at multiple sites in Xinjiang.

In addition, the high-platform tomb in Jartai Pass Site is the largest, the most prestigious, and the best-preserved stone tomb found in Xinjiang from the Bronze to the Early Iron Ages. The residential area and the high-platform tomb together constitute a large-scale settlement site. The surface of the tomb was made into three-dimensional radial stone walls, obviously showing its sacrificial function. The emergence of such a high-level design of the tomb reflects that the social structure at that time was getting more complex. The two four-wheeled wooden carts and bone skates unearthed there further prove the early exchange of materials and technologies between the East and the West.

During the Iron Age, the rise of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and the historical process of unification triggered the gradual westward migration of East Asian nomadic herdsmen, a process that lasted until the westward migration of the Xiongnu around the 2nd century. As the nomadic populations originally inhabiting the Mongolian Plateau and the Gansu-Qinghai region entered Xinjiang in large numbers, the area's cultural landscape was further influenced by that of Gansu-Qinghai region. Simultaneously, the coexistence of nomadic herding and oasis-based settled agriculture gradually emerged.

The extensive burial materials from the Yanbulake Cemetery in Hami and the Yanghai Cemetery in Turpan reflect the continuation of the colored pottery culture that once flourished in the Gansu-Qinghai region extending into Xinjiang. The discovery of the Koyuk Shahri Ancient City in Luntai county indicates that by no later than around 550 BC, settled cities had already appeared along the Tarim Basin. During this period, crops such as millet, panicum, and wheat may have already been cultivated, but in general, the economic structure was still relatively simple and underdeveloped. It was not until the Han dynasty and later that a fundamental transformation occurred.

In addition, silk fabrics, lacquerwares, bronze mirrors from the Central Plains have been unearthed from the tombs in Alagou in Tokxun, Manas county, and other places in Xinjiang, confirming the close connection between Xinjiang and the Central Plains. Similarly, there were craftsmen who specifically made objects for the northern nomads. For example, a deer-pattern plaque pottery mold was excavated from a craftsman's tomb of the Warring States Period (475–221 BC) in Beikang Village in the northern suburb of Xi'an city, and similar items have been found in the northern grasslands and Xinjiang.

From the archaeological discoveries above, it is evident that extensive cultural exchanges and interactions took place in various parts of ancient China. Xinjiang, where Eastern and Western civilizations converge, plays a vital role as a bridge to bring them together.

The development of a united multi-ethnic country and people's cultural identity

After Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions in 139 BC, the land Silk Road was opened up, and records of Xinjiang began to emerge in Chinese history. In 60 BC, the Western Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 25) established the Protectorate of the Western Regions as its highest governing military and political institution, marking the fact that Xinjiang has been an inseparable part of China. Since then, successive central authorities have exercised jurisdiction over the Western Regions.

The Protectorate of the Western Regions first established in the Western Han dynasty was located in Luntai county in present-day Bayingol Mongol autonomous prefecture, formerly known as Wulei. Here lies a historical relic, the Koyuk Shahri Ancient City Site, dating back to the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC). It contains the form of early city-state, which laid the foundation for later administration of the Western Regions by the central government.

Additionally, Zhuoerkut Ancient City of the Han (206 BC–AD 220) and Jin (265–420) dynasties was discovered in Luntai county as well. Inside the city, there is a housing area with the largest individual area among the ancient city sites currently found in Xinjiang, which has been identified as a high-level urban site of the Han and Jin dynasties. In the late Western Han dynasty, with the improvement of national governance, the Protectorate of the Western Regions was relocated from Wulei to Taqian City in Qiuci. Archaeological excavations and unearthed artifacts revealed that Ushkart Ancient City in the present-day Xinhe county in Akesu City is indeed where Taqian City lied.

Thereafter, a military and administrative system encompassing cities, cantonments, and military defense, with the Protectorate of the Western Region at its core, was gradually established and optimized in the Western Regions.

In the Shichengzi Site in Qitai county, a large number of Han-style pantiles and eaves tiles were unearthed, along with kiln sites for firing. This reflects the fact that the architectural technology and system of the Central Plains have been popularized in the northern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains.

The establishment of the Great Wall system in Xinjiang ensured the effectiveness of the Silk Road and the governmental orders, symbolizing China's exercise of sovereignty. As essential parts of the Great Wall system, beacon towers, forts, post stations, and outposts in Xinjiang from the Han dynasty to the Qing dynasty (1616–1911) were strictly constructed in accordance with the border defense system. Located in the desert of Yuli county, Kiyakkuduk Beacon Tower Site is one of the numerous Great Wall sites in Xinjiang.

According to historical records, the Han dynasty and subsequent central dynasties set up military and administrative institutions in the Western Regions. In the Wei and Jin dynasties, there was the Chief Office of the Western Regions; in the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Anxi Protectorate and Beiting Protectorate; in the Yuan dynasty (1206–1368), the provincial system; in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Hami Garrison Command; and in the Qing dynasty, the Yili General's Office. The Loulan Ancient City Site in Ruoqiang county, Tonggusi Bashi Ancient City Site in Xinhe county, Beiting Ancient City Site in Jimusaer county, and Huiyuan Ancient City Site in Huocheng county correspond to the important institutions mentioned above.

Thanks to the security guarantee from the successive dynasties throughout history, the Silk Road established after Zhangqian's mission to the Western Regions remained effective, thereby promoting comprehensive development of society, economy, trade, and culture of the Western Regions.

Take Loulan as an example: Prior to the Western Han dynasty, the region's archaeological landscape was dominated by microlithic artifacts, suggesting that its inhabitants led a rudimentary life of hunting and gathering. However, with the advent of the Silk Road, soldiers and sentinels from various locales took up farming and other productive tasks. As a result, advanced production technologies were brought to the Western Regions, greatly improving productivity in this region. Crops such as barley, wheat, millet, and panicum were extensively cultivated, and irrigation technologies were introduced for agricultural production.

As the middle section of the Silk Road increased from two to three routes, the towns and cities along the way developed further, leading to increased prosperity of the neighboring areas. Many significant city sites, such as Lapchuq Ancient City in Hami, Jiaohe Ancient City and Gaochang City Ruins in Turpan, Tangchaodun Ancient City in Qitai county, Dalet Ancient City in Bole City, Yuzigan Ancient City in Korla City, Tuokuzisalai Ancient City in Marabishi County and Hannuoyi Ancient City in the then Kashgar Prefecture, represent key archeological discoveries along the Silk Road in different periods.

Constant population exchanges over the years have allowed Xinjiang forebears to have a deeper understanding of the Central Plains culture, and thus they fostered a profound sense of identity. This sense of identity is embodied in every aspect of people's lives in the Western Regions, especially in language and funerary customs.

Throughout history, though a variety of languages and scripts have been used in Xinjiang, such as Kharosthi, Brami, Khotan, Sordian, Tujue (Turkic), Huihu (Uighur), Mongolian, Chagatai, Manchu, only Chinese characters have long been used officially, sustaining interactions and exchanges among the various ethnic groups in Xinjiang. Cang Jie Pian fragment unearthed from Niya Site, Thousand Character Classic from Kuqa County, and Ji Jiu Pian from Loulan show that literacy textbooks have been popular in Xinjiang since the Han dynasty. The fragments of copies of The Book of History, Mao Shi Zheng Jian, The Book of Rites, and The Book of Filial Piety unearthed in Astana Cemetery confirm that Chinese learning had become part of people's daily life in the Western Regions at that time. Loulan Site and Niya Cemetery unearthed some precious silk fabrics that came from the Central Plains. The characters on them are popular auspicious terms in the Central Plains, such as "五星出东方利中国" (meaning five stars rising from the East benefiting Zhongguo (China)), "延年益寿" (meaning promising longevity), "长寿明光" (meaning longevity and brilliance), and so on, all showing that the ancient residents in the Western Regions identified with the culture of the Central Plains.

Funerary customs express people's beliefs and social structure. Before the Han dynasty, multi-burial and disturbed burial (also known as second burial, a practice to bury the deceased's remains two or more times, often in different locations) prevailed in Xinjiang. Coffins were usually either absent or in the form of just a reed mat or wooden plank placed beneath the deceased, along with scarce burial objects. After the Han dynasty, single burial and joint burial became popular; the box-shaped wooden coffins from the Central Plains appeared; painted wooden coffins were found in the areas surrounding Lop Nor and the Tarim Basin as well. The burial objects also increased, and many high-quality tombs contained bronze mirrors, silk fabrics, and other items directly sourced from the Central Plains. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, a large amount of cave tombs, brick tombs, and ramp tombs in the Han-style were found in Lapchuq in Hami, Astana, Khara-khoja, and Jiaohe Gouxi in Turpan, Loulan, Kuqa, and Yanqi.

It can be gathered that, since the Western Han dynasty, Xinjiang has been part of China's development of a unified multi-ethnic country, with Chinese cultural identity always being the mainstream of Xinjiang's history.

Coexistence of diverse religions

As a gateway for the exchange and mutual learning between Chinese and other civilizations, Xinjiang is one of the important regions in China that was exposed to foreign cultures at an early period and integrated them into its own. The exposure to and the localization of foreign cultures are directly reflected in various religious relics.

At least seven religions have been prevalent in Xinjiang throughout history.

Shamans wearing copper bells have been found in the Yaer Cemetery in Hami and the Yanghai Cemetery in Turpan; some studies showed that the ephedra unearthed in the Xiaohe Cemetery relates to spirit speak. These discoveries reflect primitive shamanic beliefs.

By the 4th century BC at the latest, Zoroastrianism originating in the Iranian plateau reached Xinjiang. In Turpan, Xinyuan, and other places, bronze animal plates and bronze animal altars were unearthed as physical evidence of Zoroastrianism in China. These altars were not exactly the same as those in Central Asia and West Asia, but took on the local style of Xinjiang. Though the ossuaries excavated in Turpan, Yanqi, Kuqa, and Jimsar retained some elements of Zoroastrianism, compared to the relevant records of the Wei, Jin, Sui, and Tang dynasties, it can be found that changes occurred in funerary customs and the style of religious sites, showing with more Chinese cultural elements.

Buddhist sites are the largest and most varied religious relics existing in Xinjiang, mainly including ground Buddhist temples and caves. Those that have been excavated include the Dandan Uilik Site, the Dharmago Temple, the Subashi Temple, the Shikshin Temple, the Baiyanggou Temple, the Mo'er Temple, the Uygur Buddhist Temple in Beiting, the Kizil Caves, the Tuyoq Caves, and so on.

The Mo'er Temple is located in the northeast of Kashgar (present-day Kashi), where two pagodas—an inverted-bowl-shaped pagoda and a square one—are standing on the ground. This site is the earliest and westernmost large above-ground Buddhist temple site in China, offering a key example of the layout of early independent Buddhist monasteries and a symbol of the early stage of Buddhism's spread in China. From 2019 to 2023, through archaeological exploration and excavation, it has been preliminarily determined that the site was built no later than the mid 3rd century and abandoned around the late 9th and the early 10th centuries. In the great Buddha hall, there were Buddha statues influenced by the culture of the Central Plains.

According to carbon-14 dating, they could be traced back to the late 7th century and the early 8th century. There were also coins of Kaiyuan Tongbao (the currency issued by the Tang government) from the Central Plains unearthed there. These temples and caves on the cliffs of the Tianshan Mountains and the Gobi Desert illustrate the flourishing of Buddhism in ancient Xinjiang.

With the westward migration of the Huihu (Uighur) people, Manichaeism was introduced into Xinjiang. Manichean murals have been unearthed in the Gaochang City Ruins, and Manichean caves have been found at the sites of Bezeklik, Shengjinkou, and Tuyoq.

Nestorianism also became popular in Xinjiang after the westward migration of the Huihu (Uighur) people in the 9th century. Nestorian church in Gaochang City Ruins, Xipang Nestorian Church Site, Nestorian tombstone in Huocheng, and murals in Tangchaodun Ancient City can outline the spread of Nestorianism in Xinjiang. From 2021 to 2023, the excavated Xipang Nestorian Church Site revealed a well-preserved Nestorian monastery site from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties. Over 800 paper documents in different languages such as Chinese, Syriac, Sogdian, and Uighur were unearthed, providing evidence of the spread and localization of Nestorianism in Xinjiang during the medieval period.

In the 10th century, Satuq Bughra Khan of the Kara-Khanid Khanate converted to Islam, initiating the prelude of Islamic faith in Xinjiang.

Whether from the murals and scriptures of Manichaeism and Nestorianism, or from the Islamic buildings like the tomb of Khoja Afāq and the Emir's mosque in Hami, one can discern a trend towards the indigenization of religion in China. This trend represents an inevitable choice for the sustained presence and growth of foreign religious cultures in Xinjiang.

The author is Li Wenying, director of the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and Dang Zhihao, deputy director of the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

Liu Xian /Editor    Lei Jing /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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