The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, situated in Northwest China, lies at the heart of the Eurasian continent. As a famed point along the ancient Silk Road, it connects ancient China with the world, making it a meeting place for diverse civilizations.

From the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220) to the mid and late Qing Dynasty (1616–1911), the expansive region including both the northern and southern sides of the Tianshan Mountains in Xinjiang was collectively referred to as the Western Regions by the Chinese. Since the Han Dynasty over 2,000 years ago, Xinjiang has been an integral part of China's territory. Today, innumerable ancient relics and cultural artifacts are scattered across the northern and southern sides of the Tianshan Mountains, illustrating the profound historical integration between ancient Xinjiang and the Central Plains.

Here four well-known cultural relics and historic sites are selected for discussion.

A Piece of Brocade

One of the treasures in the Xinjiang Museum is a brocade arm protector inscribed with the phrase Wu Xing Chu Dong Fang Li Zhong Guo (五星出东方利中国), woven during the Han Dynasty with Chinese characters written in seal script. The brocade was unearthed in a Han tomb at the Niya Ruins in Minfeng County of Hetian Prefecture, southern Xinjiang, by a joint team of Chinese and Japanese archaeologists in October 1995. It is celebrated as one of China's greatest archaeological finds of the 20th century.

The greatness of this piece stems in part from its craftsmanship, with Shu brocade praised in the saying "an inch of Shu brocade is worth an inch of gold." Exclusively produced in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an) and Chengdu at that time, Shu brocade symbolized the pinnacle of silk weaving craftsmanship in China and beyond at that time.

Moreover, the unearthed brocade featured the most sophisticated five-color combination of Shu brocade, with blue, green, red, yellow and white warp threads intersecting with the weft. The intricate production process added to the undeniable value of this precious item.

Yet the item's greatness is further epitomized by its various connotations. Adorning the five-colored brocade are eight Chinese characters Wu Xing Chu Dong Fang Li Zhong Guo (五星出东方利中国), meaning "it is a favorable time for Zhongguo (China) when Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and Saturn appear simultaneously in the eastern sky." This not only reflects the accomplishments in astronomy and calendrical systems of the Chinese ancestors, but also shows the profound exchanges between the Western Regions and the Central Plains over 2,000 years ago.

In the ancient tombs of the Niya Ruins, we also uncovered evidence that burial practices among ethnic groups of the Western Regions were closely aligned with those in the Central Plains. Additionally, excavations have yielded copies of Confucian classics such as the Book of Documents, Book of Rites and Classic of Filial Piety, confirming that the study of Han literature became integrated into local people's daily life at that time.

A Complex of Grottoes

The central government of the Han dynasty established a military and political institution in the Western Regions, opening up routes to the West and laying the groundwork for the upcoming extensive cultural exchanges. This created the foundation for what later became known as the Silk Road, with Xinjiang emerging as a crucial artery. Through the Silk Road, China exported vast quantities of silk, porcelain, tea and bronzeware, while importing a wealth of commodities such as horses, jewelry, ivory and spices. A large number of Han bamboo or wooden slips unearthed in Xinjiang have provided detailed records of the trade between China and foreign countries at that time, including the quantities, prices and trading locations of goods.

Of course, the Silk Road not only facilitated the exchange of goods but also played a significant role in promoting cultural exchanges between East and West. The murals found in the Kizil Grottoes, situated in Baicheng County, Xinjiang, serve as a vivid representation of this historical period.

The name Baicheng signifies a land of abundance, reflecting its past prosperity and pivotal role along the ancient Silk Road.

Those familiar with Chinese history may be aware of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, northwest China's Gansu province. However, the Kizil Grottoes predate the Mogao Grottoes by 300 years, with their origins dating back to the late third century. It was from Baicheng and along the Hexi Corridor that Buddhism first entered the Central Plains, later spreading to Korean Peninsula and Southeast Asia. The Kizil Grottoes were designated as one of China's first batch of national key cultural relic protection units in 1961, and inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014.

The process of carving the Kizil Grottoes spanned over 400 years, resulting in a total of 251 caves with approximately 10,000 square meters of murals. From these murals, one can discern the development, dissemination and evolution of ancient Buddhist art in China, making them of special value for the study of Chinese Buddhist history and art history. Apart from religious themes, the murals also feature scenes of farming, hunting, trade activities, music, dancing and ethnic customs.

For instance, Cave 17 features a figure wearing a white hat and long robe with large lapels, representing the typical attire of the ancient Sogdian people. Additionally, the Kizil Grottoes contain numerous murals depicting celestial beings dancing in the sky known as "flying apsaras." These celestial beings are depicted with a wide variety of musical instruments, including the zither, vertical konghou (an ancient plucked string instrument), pipa, fife, sheng (a mouth-blown polyphonic free reed instrument) and xiao (a vertical bamboo flute), totaling nearly 30 different types.

These instruments include both local ones as well as those from the Central Plains, India, Persia and the West. This illustrates the profound exchange and integration of various artistic forms among different regions along the Silk Road. Building on this, the renowned Chinese cultural scholar Ji Xianlin once remarked that the Kizil region was unique in the world as a place where ancient Indian, Greco-Roman, Persian and China's Han and Tang dynasties intersected.

It is worth noting that the culture of the Kizil region has persisted and evolved over time. Even today, we can still observe cultural imprints from 1,700 years ago in the dances and ornamentation of musical instruments, clothing, furniture and architecture of the Uygur and other ethnic groups.

An Ancient City

The ancient city of Jiaohe stands as the world's largest and oldest well-preserved city with raw, unfired earth as its primary building material. It also represents the most complete urban site preserved in Northwest China for over 2,000 years. The Anxi Protectorate, the highest military and political institution in the Western Regions during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), was first established in Jiaohe.

When viewed from above, Jiaohe ancient city resembles a sprawling willow leaf, earning its name "Jiaohe" (meaning "intersecting rivers") due to two rivers that flow around the city and intersect downstream. The city's layout comprises five distinct zones: residential, storage, administrative, temple and burial districts, each with clearly defined functions. Its architectural design closely mirrors that of the Tang capital, Chang'an.

Various ethnic groups coexisted in the ancient city, with merchants and traders gathering from all directions, fostering diverse cultural exchanges and enriching the ancient Silk Road. Many ethnic groups including Han, Jushi, Xiongnu, Xianbei, Sogdian, Turkic, Uighur and Mongol have all inhabited this area.

Jiaohe ancient city is also a sacred site of religious and cultural significance, containing over 50 Buddhist temples and more than 100 Buddhist pagodas. Throughout history, in addition to Buddhism, this region has also witnessed the prevalence of various religions including Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism from ancient Persia, Nestorianism from present-day Syria, indigenous Taoism from China, as well as Islam.

The harmonious coexistence of diverse religions and cultures has made this area a significant testament to multicultural integration spanning China's 5,000-year civilization.

A Stone Monument

The stone monument commemorating the suppression of the rebellion by the Junggars is located along the border of Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture in Xinjiang, over 50 kilometers southwest of Zhaosu County. Inscribed with Manchu and Chinese text on the front, and Mongolian and Tibetan on the back, this monument honors the pivotal historical event of the Qing army quelling the rebellion of the Junggar tribe at Gedeng Mountain in the 20th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign (1755).

According to Qing archival records, the proposal for erecting the inscription stone was first made in 1755. However, construction was halted in 1758 due to logistical challenges from the interruption of supplies for artisans and soldiers, a lack of pack animals to transport tools, and the inability to cross the Ili River due to a shortage of boats. It was not until July 1762 that the project was finally completed, meaning the establishment of the monument took a total of seven years.

The successful construction of the monument owed much to the collaborative efforts of officials and craftspeople from diverse ethnic groups, including Manchu, Han and Uygur. Under the supervision of Ili Minister Counsellor Agui, administrative official Fu Kui led artisans from Gansu province in stone carving, military officer Liu Xia oversaw the foundation's construction, and local Uygur contributed by producing lime. Together, they completed this monumental structure, which symbolized the assertion of sovereignty by the Qing government.

After suppressing the rebellion by the Junggars, the Qing government implemented a more systematic governance policy in the Western Regions. In 1762, the position of General of Ili was established, instituting an integrated military-political management system. In 1877, the Qing government thwarted attempts by the Russian Empire to annex Chinese territory, reclaiming the occupied territories in the Western Regions. During negotiations, Qing officials cited the monument to the suppression of the rebellion by the Junggars as evidence that the territories the Tsarist Russia sought to occupy had historically belonged to China. In 1884, the Qing government established a province in the Western Regions, naming it "Xinjiang," signifying "old territory newly returned to the motherland," and implemented the same administrative system as in other provinces.

The author is Liu Xinlu, professor at Beijing Foreign Studies University.

Liu Xian /Editor

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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