Coexistence: harmony in diversity

Confucius once said: "Noble people live in harmony with each other despite holding different viewpoints, while villains blindly agree yet cannot get along." The key point here is that people with higher moral values pursue harmonious interpersonal relations while tolerating differing opinions, but the narrow-minded crave absolute uniformity while disregarding others' feelings and needs. The latter usually leads to conflict and tension.

Confucius was not alone in advocating "harmony in diversity." Many classic Chinese texts expound on this idea. For instance, the Discourses of the States (Guoyu), China's first history of ancient states, records the words of a Western Zhou thinker named Shi Bo. He proposed the key idea that "harmony is a living thing." He believed beings could be nurtured only if they could live together harmoniously. Shi Bo was the first to distinguish the nuances between harmony and sameness—two notions appearing similar yet fundamentally distinct. He explained that harmony denotes the coexistence, interaction, blending, and mutual influence of different things. When coordinated and balanced, they engender a vibrant, diverse, and enduring dynamic world. In contrast, a mere agglomeration of things of the same type, amplifying their dominance as a whole, will not only inhibit anything new, but will also age, decline, and eventually perish.

Confucianism has upheld harmony in diversity as the zenith of cultural attainment ever since Confucius first advocated it. Other Confucian classics like the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong) and The Great Commentary of the Classic of Changes (Yi Zhuan) contain precepts like "neutral harmony" and "supreme harmony," suggesting that, from individual mindsets to interpersonal relations, from national governance to the universe's operation, "harmony" is the cardinal rule to be observed. They underscore the importance of coordinating and balancing differences between people, between human and society, and between human and nature in order that every member may attain "harmonious development."

The notion of harmony in diversity comprises two facets. First, a society should allow different beliefs and religions to peacefully coexist. Second, people with different views and beliefs should find common ground to live together harmoniously.

Confucianism holds that the world is large enough for the symbiosis and flourishing of diverse civilizations. Since civilizations have emerged from different societal environments, none of them can be considered superior or inferior to the others. In this era of globalization, the all-encompassing interactions between nations and ethnic groups necessitate the notion of harmony in diversity as a guiding principle. Rather than replacing them with one's own culture or religion, one should acknowledge the fundamental rights to existence and development of all ethnic groups and recognize the equal worth of their cultures and religious beliefs as invaluable treasures for humanity.

Philosophical wisdom: one principle, multiple manifestations

While Confucianism advocates the harmonious coexistence of cultures, the notion of harmony in diversity suggests the organic hybridization of diverse cultures rather than haphazard cultural amalgamation. Is it possible to enable cultures and religions to exist in harmony despite their differences? The Confucian answer is "one principle, multiple manifestations."

What does this idea denote? Zhu Xi, a renowned ancient Chinese philosopher, gave the most comprehensive explanation. He believed that the myriad of things in the world, though seemingly different, are but diverse manifestations of the divine principle in all things.

For instance, a monarch should take care of his subjects, an official should show respect, a father should exemplify kindness, and a son should take filial responsibility. These divergent manifestations are analogous to the Buddhist metaphor of the "moon reflected in thousands of rivers." Even though there is only one moon, its reflections are seen in countless rivers and seas. Each reflection might look slightly different on the rippling water surfaces, yet all mirror the same moon.

This use of a Buddhist meditation to elucidate the Confucian idea is an example of the latter's learning from other cultures. With Buddhism's arrival during the Han dynasties and Taoism's emergence in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Confucianism encountered formidable heterodoxies. Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism competed for centuries during the Wei, the Jin, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Sui dynasty and the Tang dynasty. By learning from Buddhism and Taoism, Confucianism took a quantum leap, culminating in the highly philosophized Neo-Confucianism during the Song and Ming dynasties. The Neo-Confucian scholars employed the notion of "one principle, multiple manifestations" to claim that Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism were all reflections of the same divine principle, albeit in different expressions.

In the Confucian view, the world is so vast that every possibility exists. It is understandable that people have different ideas as they may lead extremely different lifestyles. This allows ample room for explanation, tolerance, and broadmindedness towards other religions. The contemporary Western philosopher John Hicks religious pluralism compared the world's distinct faiths to the rainbow, whose different colors proceed from the refraction of the same divine light.

As a species, humans inherently share certain commonalities which transcend geographic or ethnic attributes. Based on the starting point of deciding to transcend differences in faiths and doctrines, religious leaders at the 1993 Parliament of the World's Religions endorsed a groundbreaking document, Towards a Global Ethic: An Initial Declaration.

The renowned German Catholic thinker Hans Küng stated: "We confirm that there is already a consensus among the religions which can be the basis for a global ethic — a minimal 'fundamental consensus' concerning binding 'values,' irrevocable 'standards,' and fundamental 'moral attitudes'."

The contemporary New Confucian scholar Liu Shuxian contributed to developing the Global Ethic and substantiated religious pluralism through the Confucian doctrine of "one principle, multiple manifestations." He argued that from the New Confucian perspective, each religion constitutes a distinct expression of the same principle of heaven, and hence possesses indisputable value. Promoting one's own religion to conquer, supplant, or annex others is nothing more than a form of cultural imperialism.

A global ethos: Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you.

The "way of loyalty and forgiveness" is a centerpiece in the Confucian thought system. Confucius viewed it as the core value permeating all his teachings, and it has prevailed in Chinese society and among Chinese thinkers for over 2,500 years.

According to Zhu Xi, "Loyalty means staying true to oneself, while forgiveness means extending this self-regard to others." That is, the fundamental principle for interpersonal relations revolves around what is acceptable to oneself. On the one hand, it means "do unto others as you would have them do unto you," and on the other hand, it means "do not do unto others as you would not have them do unto you."

Both the Confucian "way of loyalty and forgiveness" and the Christian Golden Rule share the same positive implication. As Jesus Christ said, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." However, Christianity lacks the corresponding negative part: "do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you." Consequently, some Western Christian-majority nations, believing that the Christian faith is the sole path to salvation, and desiring to deliver this message to their brethren around the world, embarked on fervent missionary work, often with a lack of understanding and respect for other religions.

With Western civilization in a predominant position today, American conservative thinkers refer to their beliefs as "universal civilization." The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington noted that the diversity of cultures and civilizations poses a challenge to the West, and especially the United States, in its belief in the universality of Western culture. He also observed that Western universalism believes that people all over the world should believe in Western values, institutions, and cultures because they consist of the highest, most progressive, most liberal, most rational, most modern, and most civilized ideas of humanity.

As the Taiwanese scholar Cai Renhou has pointed out: "The 'fanaticism' exhibited by Western religions is precisely the 'imposition of one's own desires upon others.' Though well-intentioned, it inevitably infringes upon others' freedom of religious belief."

In this era of globalization, insisting on the superiority of one's own religion and compelling others to accept it can easily trigger ethnic and religious conflicts on a global scale. Hans Küng emphasized the Chinese wisdom of "do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" when authoring Towards a Global Ethic: An Initial Declaration.

Religious practice: many ways to believe, many ways to participate

Traditional Chinese culture embraces a polytheistic approach to religion. This is reflected in two facts: different religions exist and are freely propagated in China, and people often follow more than one faith.

Western Christians and Muslims around the world find this hard to comprehend. As the Western religious philosopher Paul Knitter observed, a native Chinese may find it difficult "to answer the typical Westerner's question: What is your religion?... Unlike Europeans and Americans, they are not raised within a singular religious faith... the hybridized character of Chinese religious life finds expression in the notion of the Three Teachings, which means Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The same individual can embrace all these three beliefs in different life contexts."

This pluralism common in China is inextricably linked to the Confucian ethos that constitutes China's cultural mainstream. The teachings of Confucius emerged over 2,500 years ago against the backdrop of rapid social transformation during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. A noteworthy characteristic of that era was the subversion of traditional spiritual beliefs. Many people started to doubt the power of heaven, resent heaven, and deny the existence of spirits and deities. Influenced by these ideological undercurrents, Confucius evaded topics on the existence of spirits and deities and claimed it was impossible to know anything about the afterlife.

However, he advocated filial piety and ancestral worship. He instructed people to piously venerate their ancestors and not probe into the presence or absence of spirits and gods.

This apparent psychological and behavioral contradiction actually stemmed from his stance that faith resides in subjective psychology, irrespective of the objective existence of those being worshipped. Spirits exist if one believes and do not if they are disbelieved. From the perspective of modern religious studies, Confucius embraced a typical subjective religious view. Whatever the religion, the truth or falsity of the object of worship is immaterial; what matters is whether it confers practical benefits upon believers and society.

Influenced by Confucian thought, the ancient Chinese adopted a pragmatic attitude towards the other world by primarily considering whether a faith could yield practical benefits. If any deity or doctrine was thought to be beneficial, it would be revered; this was called "burning incense before any temple and kowtowing to any statue."

Buddhism and Taoism flourished during the Wei, the Jin, and the Northern and Southern dynasties. On the one hand, the Three Teachings competed fiercely with each other amid profound inter-religious dialogues. On the other hand, Confucian scholars often interacted amicably with eminent Buddhist monks and Taoist priests. An interesting example is Emperor Wu (464–549) of the Liang dynasty. While he was arguably the most enthusiastic imperial patron of Buddhism in ancient China, he was also knowledgeable about Confucian and Taoist texts and advocated the integration of the three religions.

After centuries of dialog, the merging of the Three Teachings became a major trend from the Tang and Song era onwards. By drawing from Confucian and Taoist thought, the Chan School of Buddhism gained the upper hand in China. The Quanzhen and Zhengyi schools of Taoism synthesized Confucian moral ethics and Buddhist rituals and emerged as the Taoist mainstream. Confucianism advanced by leaps and bounds by absorbing Taoist cosmogony and Buddhist speculative philosophy, culminating in Neo-Confucianism with a well-developed theoretical base during the Song and Ming dynasties.

The history of Chinese culture is a chronicle of mutual exchange, complementarity, and growth among diverse cultures. Naturally, religions in China bear the imprint of Chinese people's spiritual pluralism. From the Song and Ming dynasties onwards, Buddhist statues could be found in Taoist monasteries and convents, while Taoist deities like Guan Yu were venerated in Buddhist temples. The Hanging Temple in Datong, Shanxi even has a Three Teachings Hall, where worshipers bring their offerings to Confucius, Laozi, and Shakyamuni Buddha in the same space.

This Chinese plurality of religious beliefs may appear extremely impious to adherents of other religions. As noted by the French sinologist Jacques Gernet, most Chinese literati have tried everything once — Buddhism, Taoism, elixirs, divination, and yin-yang arts. From one to the other, they were utterly unconcerned about mixing them up... The Chinese show such a remarkable tendency for syncretism because, for them, absolute and eternal truth simply does not exist.

This avoidance of religious absolutes fostered interactions between ethnic groups in China and precluded cultural conflicts arising from divergent beliefs. To maintain the unity of the empire, Chinese emperors would routinely pay obeisance to deities of different ethnic faiths without any sense of conflict. The founder of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan, once said: "There are great men like Jesus, Mohammed, Moses, Sakyamuni, who are revered and worshipped by the different classes of humanity... I do honor and respect them."

In today's complex world, where people from different countries are ever more interconnected and where tensions between religions and ethnic groups could gravely endanger human survival and development, China's pluralistic religious praxis can surely provide us with invaluable insights and inspiration.

The author is Zhang Jian, professor at Renmin University of China.

Liu Xian /Editor    Deng Zhiyu /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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