Beijing, as China's capital city for more than 870 years, boasts a history of urban development spanning over 3,000 years. The architectural complex along Beijing Central Axis dates back to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) when Emperor Kublai Khan decided to make the eastern side of Jishuitan the new imperial center of his capital city. Over time, this complex has continuously expanded in rhythm with Beijing's development.

Today, Beijing Central Axis spans 7.8 kilometers from north to south, linking landmarks such as the Bell and Drum Towers, the Wanning Bridge, the Jingshan Park, the Forbidden City, the Tian'anmen Square, the Zhengyangmen Gate, the Arrow Tower, the Yongdingmen Gate, as well as the Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Altar of Land and Grain. The architectural ensemble covers an area of 5 square kilometers. Liang Sicheng, a famous Chinese architect, praised this architectural feat as unparalleled in the world.

An architectural ideal with specific spatial connotations

In 1267, Emperor Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty commenced the planning of a new capital, Yuan Dadu, modeled after the architectural ideal proposed in the Rites of Zhou.

The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC) was a crucial period in ancient China in the maturation of China's philosophies on ritual and order; the urban construction systems developed in this period have been revered by later Confucians. The hierarchical system of cities and the layout of the core architectures established during the Zhou Dynasty were recorded in the Rites of Zhou.

According to the book, the core architectural complex of an imperial capital must observe the following requirements. The imperial palace faces south, with markets to its north; to the left of the palace lies the ancestral temple for the worship of ancestors, while to the right stands the altar to worship the land and grains. This architectural layout underscores the centrality of the imperial power in ancient China, illuminating the perceptions of directions and their relations to power as well as the reverence for ancestors and the state in the Zhou Dynasty.

This layout was adopted by later dynasties. Yuan Dadu, the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, was precisely an example of observing and replicating the urban layout outlined in the Rites of Zhou, a means by Emperor Kublai Khan to demonstrate the legitimacy of the Yuan Dynasty within Chinese civilization.

Symmetry honoring centrality

The progress of human civilization witnesses the establishment of order, which is reflected in urban planning.

Ancient Chinese people developed an understanding of celestial movements by observing the North Star and the Big Dipper. They considered the North Star the center of the universe, with the constellation around it referred to as the Purple Forbidden Enclosure. Emperors, deemed as Sons of Heaven, had their palaces known as the Purple Forbidden City. Seeking the center of the universe was a way for ancient Chinese people to set up relationships between heaven and humanity, where centrality symbolizes a mandate from heaven.

The layout of early Chinese capitals was influenced by this perception, as shown by important buildings arranged or urban areas planned according to the positions and shapes of constellations. For instance, for the layout of Xianyang, the capital of the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC), the Wei River corresponded to the Milky Way, and the Xianyang Palace to the Purple Forbidden Enclosure. The configuration of Chang'an, the capital of the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 8), resembled that of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure.

In the construction of successive Chinese capitals, a central axis that determined the overall urban layout first appeared during the Han and Wei periods (around 220 BC) in Yecheng (present-day Handan, Hebei province). Today, the symmetrical urban layout based on Yecheng central axis can still be seen in its ruins.

Emperor Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty and his minister Liu Bingzhong first located the central point of Yuan Dadu and constructed the Central Terrace there, then arranged the imperial palace, market streets, and ancestral temples accordingly, thus building the entire capital city. Later, during the Ming Dynasty (1388–1644), Emperor Yongle relocated the capital to Beijing and rebuilt the palaces, largely following the layout of the previous central axis of Yuan Dadu. The rebuilt architectural ensemble along the central axis during the Yongle period became even more compact and dignified.

Over centuries, the architectural complex along Beijing Central Axis continued to expand, with its length increasing from 3.5 kilometers during the Yuan Dynasty to 4.5 kilometers during the Yongle period, and eventually to 7.5 kilometers during the Jiajing period of the Ming dynasty. The central axis and its development process has determined the form of the entire city of Beijing.

During the Qing Dynasty (1616–1911), further improvements were made to the spatial features of the central axis. For instance, during the Shunzhi period, the three main halls of the Forbidden City were rebuilt and renamed as the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony; the Chengtianmen Gate was renovated and renamed Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace). In the Qianlong period, Yongdingmen Gate was reconstructed, and Arrow Tower was added; the architectural complex of the Hall of Imperial Longevity in Jingshan was rebuilt, perfecting the central axis of Beijing.

Ritual and order featuring cultural inclusiveness

The architectural ensemble along Beijing Central Axis, spanning north to south and encompassing the central parts of the Inner City, the Imperial City, the Forbidden City, and the Outer City, reflects the social life as well as the order of various social strata in ancient China, including emperors, nobles, officials, merchants, and commoners. This social order constitutes the core of traditional Chinese ritual culture.

At the northern end of the central axis, the Bell and Drum Towers served as timekeeping facilities during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, regulating the pace of people's daily lives. In ancient China, without modern timekeeping tools, the consciousness of time relied on astronomical observations. Furthermore, the management of time held sacred significance, symbolizing the emperor's mandate from heaven.

During the Qing Dynasty, the Bell and Drum Towers in Beijing were managed by the imperial department responsible for ceremonial affairs. Emperor Qianlong vividly depicted the scene of nocturnal patrols in his Imperial Inscription for the Reconstruction of the Bell Tower, where the sounds of bells, clappers, and gongs resonated in harmony, shaping the nocturnal order of the capital city.

Moreover, as a carrier of state ritual, the architectural ensemble along Beijing Central Axis was accompanied by ceremonial music. In traditional Chinese beliefs, music itself serves as a means to communicate with heaven and earth and is an indispensable part of ceremonies.

For example, ceremonial music and dances were performed during various state sacrificial rituals. Similarly, music was required when emperors in person engaged in farming at the Altar of Agriculture where the Ceremony of Plowing and Harvest was customarily held. Whenever the emperors set out for a trip, bells and drums sounded in unison at the Meridian Gate and the Gate of Divine Might. Ceremonies and music constituted the harmonious order of the state and society, thus achieving the Unity of Heaven and Man.

There are four sets of national sacrificial altar temple complexes along the central axis of Beijing. The Imperial Ancestral Temple holds special significance as a place to honor imperial ancestors and meritorious officials, indicating people's reverence for their ancestors. The Altar of Land and Grain is dedicated to household deities and the God of Agriculture, highlighting the close connection between family and state in traditional Chinese philosophy. The Temple of Heaven is where offerings are made to the Heavenly Emperor, representing the Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven. The Altar of Agriculture, as its name suggests, venerates various deities related to agricultural production.

Additionally, the architectural ensemble along Beijing Central Axis includes numerous buildings in relation to multiple faiths. For instance, the Palace of Earthly Tranquility serves as the venue for Shamanistic rituals during the Qing Dynasty, while the Hall of Imperial Peace enshrines the Daoist Great Emperor of Genuine Prowess, and the five pavilions atop Jingshan Hill house statues of Tibetan Buddhism. These buildings accentuate the inclusiveness of Chinese civilization for diverse beliefs and cultures.

The author is Lv Zhou, the head of the Beijing Central Axis World Heritage Application Team and the Director of the National Heritage Conservation Center at Tsinghua University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Deng Zhong /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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