The character "龙" in Chinese culture is often translated into English as "dragon." In the English-speaking world, the "dragon" is perceived as a domineering and highly aggressive creature. However, in the minds of the Chinese people, the image of "龙" is divine, just, auspicious, and noble, serving as a symbolic emblem and cultural totem of the Chinese nation.

Equating the English “dragon” with the Chinese "龙" in translation has led to certain misconceptions. How do we perceive the English rendering of "龙"? What transformations has the concept of "龙" undergone in the history of Chinese cultural traditions? What is the underlying spirit of the Chinese nation that venerates "龙" as its totemic symbol?

How to translate the Chinese character "龙"?

In the Chinese-speaking world, the character "龙" has been in widespread use since the pre-Qin period (before 221 BC). This character not only represents the legendary, dragon-like creature, but also refers to other animals that are tall, mighty, and possess divine powers, such as referring to an extraordinary horse with the phrase "like a divine dragon."

There is no definitive conclusion on what a Chinese dragon should actually look like. The most widely accepted image of a dragon is that it is a composite of various features from various animals, including deer antlers, a camel's head, turtle eyes, a snake's neck, a clam's belly, carp scales, eagle claws, tiger paws, and cow ears, among others. Some of the animals that were used to depict the dragon, like the "clam" (蜃), are quite rare and are said to be a type of large mollusk, while others are mythical creatures. Hence, the image of the dragon is basically a creation of the human imagination.

The early Western missionaries who came to China likely faced a dilemma when considering how to introduce the concept of the Chinese dragon to the Western society. From some translated materials, it is evident that some translators simply used the term "Serpientes" or "Serpent" based on its appearance, while others used transliterations such as "Loong" or "Loung." Meanwhile, many more opted for a free translation, settling on "Dragon."

It is difficult to verify exactly who first used the translation of "dragon," but Chinese scholars believe that, whether it was Marco Polo or the missionary Matteo Ricci, the cultural envoys of the time did not use the word "dragon" with the intent of demonizing China. For a long period thereafter, the dragon was not an object of derogation or ridicule.

In the English-speaking world, the "dragon" is also a creature of imagination existing in the myths and folklores of various cultures across the globe. Yet, the depiction of dragons differs somewhat across these cultures, and within their cultural frameworks, dragons can be either benevolent or malevolent, either good or evil.

The modern Western image of the "dragon" was developed during the medieval period in Western Europe, blending elements from the serpentine dragons of ancient Greek and Roman literature, dragons mentioned in the Bible from the Near East, and the dragon folklore of Western Europe. The nature of dragons in this tradition is also multifaceted, encompassing a range of characteristics from being kind and amicable to fierce and domineering.

In recent years, some Chinese scholars have suggested that given the stark contract between the negative image conveyed by the Western dragon and the positive attributes of the Chinese dragon, the word "Loong" should be used instead of "dragon" as the English term for "龙" to address the cultural misinterpretations caused by the translation. Nevertheless, a review of the explanations of "dragon" in various English dictionaries reveals that, when referring to the meaning of "龙" in East Asian contexts, they all point to the auspiciousness, benevolence, and nobility associated with the Chinese dragon. With the deepening of cultural exchanges between China and the West, these aspects of meaning have been widely recognized by those with a multicultural outlook. Hence, the author contends that using "Chinese dragon" as the translation for "龙" is, in fact, appropriate.

The status change of the Chinese dragon

As early Europeans regarded the "eagle" as a symbol of Rome, China also has such a totem to represent it, which undoubtedly, should be none other than the "Chinese dragon."

Why, then, is the imaginary dragon universally recognized as an important symbol of the Chinese people? It turns out that throughout the long course of history, the dragon has indeed been existing in various aspects of Chinese culture as a traceable and ubiquitous symbolic form. Due to its significant and rich symbolic meanings, it has ultimately risen to become a symbol of the entire Chinese nation.

However, the supreme status that the dragon enjoys in Chinese culture was not inherent but rather evolved gradually over time.

A close inspection of early ancient Chinese relics, such as the dragon motifs on bronze ritual vessels from before the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), shows that dragons typically do not hold the primary position in the patterns; instead, they are more often found in subsidiary or decorative locations. This evidence suggests that in these rituals and on these vessels, the dragon was not the subject of worship but served as a messenger and vehicle for the communication between the celestial and the terrestrial, and between humans and spirits, resembling a flying horse, and only emperors and divine shamans were deemed worthy to "ride the dragon."

In the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing in Chinese pinyin), dragons often serve as the divine mounts for deities, often depicted as two dragons pulling a chariot. Mythical characters like Gou Mang, who had a human face and a body and wings of a bird, would travel in a dragon-pulled chariot to denote their esteemed status. Since the Han Dynasty, legends have abounded with tales of immortals riding dragons.

The Queen Mother of the West (an important goddess in ancient Chinese mythology) is said to have ridden a "nine-colored dragon," while the lofty status of the supreme deity Yuan Shi Tianzun (also the Primeval Lord of Heaven, one of the supreme deities in Taoism) is symbolized by his majestic mount: a chariot drawn by nine dragons accompanied by twelve white tigers.

The transition of the dragon's status from a mere mount to a symbol of "the rightful king" may have stemmed from a cultural misinterpretation. According to legend, Huangdi (also Yellow Emperor), one of the leaders of the Huaxia tribal alliance in Chinese history, ascended to heaven on a dragon upon his death. The idiom "乘龙升天" (riding the dragon to ascend to heaven),which originally referred to an emperor's death, was later misunderstood to mean that the ascending dragon was Huangdi himself. Another term, "真龙天子" (true dragon emperor), was misconstrued as praising the emperor as an actual dragon. In reality, these phrases were intended to commend the emperor's exceptional abilities, suggesting he could command and manipulate a true dragon, a creature not meant to serve ordinary people.

Briefly speaking, the dragon had many roles in the imperial household, including acting as a messenger and vehicle to communicate between the heavens and the human world; serving as one of the animals symbolizing the emperor's status, reminding ordinary people to show respect; functioning as a guardian animal to ward off evil and provide protection in all directions; and being used as a decorative motif, even adorning the outlets of drainage systems.

Because of the dragon's close connection with the emperor and the nobility, its status grew ever more prestigious. As a result, the dragon as a symbol—whether in the form of dragon patterns or images—came to represent royal identity and was prohibited for the public to use. Especially during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties (from the 13th to the 19th century), the exclusive link between the dragon and the imperial lineage was formally institutionalized. There were stringent bans on the common people's weaving of fabrics with patterns of the sun, moon, dragons, and phoenixes. Additionally, there were restrictions on the animal patterns that officials of various ranks could employ, with dragon motifs, in particular, being exclusively reserved for the emperor's use.

The ubiquitous dragon

Interestingly, the more the emperors and high officials tried to monopolize the exclusive rights to the dragon's image, the more the common people aspired to and pursued the use of various dragon symbols, thereby promoting the popularity of the dragon's image and beliefs among the populace, making it omnipresent in both tangible material life and intangible ceremonial concepts.

From ancient times until now, the image of dragon has extensively existed in China's mountains and rivers. In the minds of the common people, almost all elongated objects on the earth can be described as dragons. Countless dragons lurk in naturally formed coastlines, mountain ranges, and water systems, such as dragon spring, dragon pond, dragon well, dragon pool, dragon cave, dragon mound, dragon lake, and so on. Artificial structures such as ridges in the fields and roof beams can also be named "dragon," such as dragon temple, dragon hole, dragon town, dragon gate, dragon garden, etc.

The image of dragon also exists among plants, birds, and beasts. In the eyes of the Miao people in China, dragons have no fixed forms. In Miao embroidery, the dragon takes on a myriad of shapes and forms. In addition to the animal forms, such as the buffalo dragon, snake dragon, human-headed dragon, sheep dragon, silkworm dragon, fish dragon, crab dragon, and centipede dragon. There are also plant forms like the flower dragon, grass dragon, and leaf dragon, as well as utensil forms like the winnowing fan dragon. It seems that almost any two patterns from daily life can be combined to create a unique dragon.

In particular, the Dragon King Temple is a typical representation of the dragon worship. The concept of the Dragon King was introduced into China through Buddhism, and in the literary works such as Journey to the West (Xi You Ji in Chinese pinyin and the Legend of Deification (Fengshen Yanyi in Chinese pinyin), the Dragon King was personified as an image with a clear genealogy and diverse personalities. In the minds of the people, the Dragon King is mainly responsible for rainfall, regulating water resources to cope with natural disasters such as droughts or floods, and managing other weather phenomena related to water, such as thunder and lightning. When there was a shortage of water, people prayed to the Dragon King for the blessing of sweet rain; when there was too much rain, people prayed to the Dragon King to control the rainfall.

Such a belief in dragons is not only reflected in religious ceremonies but also deeply integrated into people's daily lives. The clouds, lightning, and rainbows are all seen as manifestations of dragons. Even today, the Dong people living in South China region often associate the appearance of a rainbow with a dragon drinking water. Therefore, one should not point at a rainbow with one's fingers as it is considered disrespectful.

Dragon-related celebration activities are also an important part of Chinese culture, among which Dragon dances and dragon boat races are the most well-known. Dragon boat races are usually held during the Duanwu Festival (also known as the Dragon Boat Festival), serving not only as a sporting competition but also as a cultural celebration. Dragon dancing, also known as dragon dance, is an art form that expresses the agility and majesty of the dragon through dance.

Chinese as descendants of the dragon

The symbolic meaning of the Chinese dragon has evolved with historical developments, from a symbol of emperors to a national emblem, and further becoming a symbol for every Chinese person, ascending to a shared totem of the Chinese nation.

The meaning of a certain symbol in a particular culture is only brought to light when compared with other cultures. Throughout Chinese history, the concept of the nation in geographical terms was not present in the minds of the average Chinese. When the Portuguese adventurer Galeote Pereira, visited China, he discovered that the common people he encountered did not realize they were Chinese; instead, they only identified themselves as "citizens of the Great Ming," rather than "the citizens of the Tang and Song dynasties."

Chinese scholar Shi Aidong argues that the symbolic meaning of the Chinese dragon was first chosen to represent the entire nation when China was forced to open its doors to the world. This means that although the image of the dragon has appeared in China for thousands of years, it is only in the past few centuries that it has evolved from a symbol of the emperor to a national symbol, and finally to a symbol for every Chinese individual.

The author is Yi Na, Institute of Ethnic Literature, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

The article is revised by Luo Anping

Liu Xian /Editor    Zhang Rong /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Ren Qiang /Coordinator

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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