The history of exchanges between Chinese and Western civilizations is both ancient and profound, predating Marco Polo's famed journey, which is often mistakenly seen by the West as the inception of Sino-Western interaction. It is essential to recognize the initial contact between these two civilizations occurred on Chinese land.

Mutual nurturing of ancient Asian and European civilizations

Paleoanthropologists, drawing from archaeological fossil evidence, posit that our ancestors originated in Africa. They suggest that the ancestors of modern humans (Homo habilis and Homo erectus) migrated out of Africa during three significant periods: 2 million to 1.8 million years ago, 840,000 to 420,000 years ago, and 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, eventually settling in the land of Asia and Europe.

Chinese paleoanthropologists propose the theory of continuous evolution with hybridization, suggesting that the Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) from 600 thousand to 700 thousand years ago is the direct ancestor of modern Chinese people. This theory contends that the primary evolution occurred in China, with interbreeding with other groups as a secondary process.

As humanity entered the era of civilization (Copper and Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age), their migratory capabilities improved significantly. A quintessential example is the Indo-Europeans (often referred to as Aryans in 19th-century literature), who, after inventing and mastering the use of chariots (wheeled vehicles drawn by domesticated horses), transitioned from hunting to nomadism. This facilitated their extensive migrations for over a millennium.

This wave of migration extended from the Indus Valley to the British Isles, propelling the western part of the Eurasian continent and even North Africa's Mediterranean coast into the Bronze and Iron Ages. This movement gave rise to the Vedic, Persian, Anatolian, Greek, Italian, Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic civilizations. In the eastern part of the Eurasian continent, the Scythians, who were nomadic in northwest China during the Shang (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou (1046–256 BC) dynasties, and the Yuezhi, who resided in the Hexi Corridor during the Qin (221–206 BC) and Han (206 BC–AD 220) dynasties, were also composed of Indo-European immigrant tribes.

Simultaneously, the ancient Chinese civilization thrived along its unique trajectory. One could argue that the European civilization, from its inception, was shaped by migration and cultural integration, whereas the Chinese civilization developed as an indigenous, native-born entity. The Mediterranean Sea, forming a natural platform for civilizational exchange in the western Eurasian continent and North Africa, constituted the Western world from China's perspective. The most extensive globalization before modern times was facilitated by the overland Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road between China and the Western world.

The interaction between ancient China and Western civilizations can be broadly divided into three phases:

● Early Sino-Western interactions before Zhang Qian's (a famous diplomat in the Han Dynasty) expeditions: Initial exchanges and contacts.

● From Zhang Qian to Zheng He's (a renowned navigator in the Ming Dynasty) era: Focused on exchanges with Central Asia, South Asia, and West Asia.

● From the mid-Ming Dynasty (1436) to the 18th century: Primary interactions between China and the Far West (European countries).

Early exchanges: Before Zhang Qian the diplomat

During the era of the Five Emperors and Three Kings of China (approximately the 26th to the 21st centuries BC), historical narratives were primarily transmitted through oral legends and limited archaeological discoveries. Artifacts such as the bronzeware and chariot pits of the Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan Province, and certain items with Western Asian characteristics unearthed at the Sanxingdui site in Sichuan Province, reflect the historical remnants of early Sino-Western exchanges.

During the Eastern Zhou period (770–221 BC), the states of Qin, Zhao, and Yan, which constructed the Great Wall on their frontiers, were pivotal in Eastern-Western contact. Under the reign of Duke Mu of Qin (659–621 BC), Qin expanded its western territories, laying the groundwork for Emperor Wu of Han to later open the Hexi Corridor to the Western Regions. The State of Zhao, by extending beyond the Great Wall, established connections with the Western Regions along the grassland routes, becoming a trading hub for luxury goods such as horses, exotic dogs, and Kunlun jade. The State of Yan primarily interacted with the Shanrong (a branch of the Xiongnu) and the Donghu, actively engaging in cultural exchanges between the Central Plains with the Western Regions through the grassland corridors.

In 1983, a significant discovery was made on the banks of the Künes River in Xinyuan County, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang. This collection of bronzeware, dating back to the Warring States period and the Qin-Han era (5th to 3rd centuries BC), predates Zhang Qian's journey to the Western Regions. Among the findings was a bronze warrior statue, adorned with a Greek-style helmet featuring a high crest reminiscent of a rooster's comb. The figure is depicted crouching, with eyes gazing into the distance and hollow hands suggesting it originally held a bow, arrow, or weapon. Some scholars believe this to be a representation of Ares, the Greek god of war. Although lacking official records, this archaeological evidence illuminates the secrets of early East-West exchanges.

Medieval exchanges: After the Han and Tang dynasties

From Zhang Qian to Zheng He, the official explorations that spanned land and maritime routes profoundly influenced the exchanges. These interactions—both political and non-official—encompassed diplomatic, economic, and trade relations, leading to extensive encounters and exchanges in systems, culture, material, and spiritual realms. A retrospective view reveals distinct historical features through varied perspectives.

Zhang Qian's establishment of routes to the Western Regions catalyzed exchanges between Chinese and Western diplomats and merchants and facilitated the movement of goods, plant and animal species, and ideas. An artifact from the Xuanquan Post in Dunhuang, Gansu Province, dating back to the Han Dynasty, reveals an invitation-like wooden slip inscribed with 小浮屠里(meaning little Buddha village), evidencing the introduction of Buddhism to China during that era.

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), China-West cultural exchanges flourished further. The Sogdians living in China gradually assimilated into Chinese culture. By the late 8th century, the Tang Dynasty appointed the official envoy Yang Liangyao to Arab countries, bridging a gap in official maritime Silk Road exchanges during the Han and Tang dynasties. In the late 20th century, a Tang Dynasty merchant vessel, the Black Stone, was discovered in Indonesian waters, laden with Chinese goods destined for West Asia and North Africa. Its cargo included over 67,000 porcelain pieces, including a Changsha kiln bowl inscribed with the second year of the Baoli era (826).

While the Han and Tang dynasties saw primarily land-based Silk Road exchanges focusing on silk, the Song and Ming periods shifted to maritime routes, with porcelain becoming the principal export. Noteworthy achievements from these periods include the rise of the Western Liao Dynasty, which extended Central Plain's cultural influence and led to the Western use of "Cathay" to refer to China. Additionally, technologies such as ceramic making, the compass, printing, and gunpowder spread to the Western world, igniting global revolutions. In contrast to the Crusades of the 11th to 13th centuries in western Eurasia, the Central Plains and coastal regions of the Song Dynasty exhibited a remarkable coexistence of foreign religions—Judaism, Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism—with native beliefs, underscoring the inclusiveness of Chinese culture.

Early Modern Period: Interactions with the Far West

From the reign of Emperor Wanli to that of Emperor Qianlong, encompassing the late Ming and early Qing periods (circa 1500–1800), this era—often referred to as the Early Modern Period—witnessed a burgeoning of Western expansion. During this 300-year span, while China maintained its frequent interactions with Asian neighbors, it notably increased its exchanges with Europe.

Politically, China remained a sovereign and independent power, in stark contrast to the semi-colonial and semi-feudal conditions it would gradually be reduced to in the mid-19th century. Economically, interactions with the West were largely characterized by voluntary trade. Despite China's gradual lag in economic and scientific advancements, the mutual exchange between Western and Chinese cultures preserved a relatively balanced and beneficial relationship.

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, Jesuit missionaries played a pivotal role in China-West cultural exchanges. They profoundly influenced Chinese perceptions of Christianity and significantly shaped European views of China. The image of China crafted by the Jesuits became the cornerstone of European understanding and intrigue regarding the distant land.

The Italian missionary Matteo Ricci, one of the first Jesuits to arrive in China, not only disseminated Western knowledge but also endeavored to introduce Chinese classics such as The Analects of Confucius to Europe. He cultivated close relationships with Chinese scholars and collaborated with the Ming Dynasty scientist and statesman Xu Guangqi to translate Euclid's Elements into Chinese—marking the inaugural translation of a Western scientific work into the Chinese language. Subsequently, Xu Guangqi and Jesuit Sabatino de Ursis co-translated works such as Hydromethods of the Far West (Tai Xi Shui Fa in Chinese pinyin). Xu Guangqi's agricultural magnum opus, Complete Treatise on Agricultural Administration, not only preserved the essence of ancient Chinese agricultural techniques but also integrated elements of Western scientific knowledge.

The German missionary Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a prominent figure at the Astronomical Bureau of the Ming Dynasty—charged with astronomical observations, calendar formulation, and weather forecasting—introduced the Chongzhen Almanac to the Qing Dynasty emperor who had then seized control of Beijing. This gesture earned him considerable favor and significant responsibilities.

During the reign of Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty, Western missionaries continued to enter China in increasing numbers. Emperor Kangxi, eager to expand the flow of Western knowledge, even corresponded with King Louis XIV of France, requesting the dispatch of additional missionaries. Kangxi himself actively engaged in learning, and studying the intricacies of astronomical instruments, logarithmic functions, geometry, and algebra. A draft of his studies, preserved in the First Historical Archives of China under the label Shengzu's Mathematical Draft attests to his scholarly pursuits. He also founded the Mengyangzhai Mathematical School to impart scientific knowledge to members of the royal family.

However, the Rite Debates, spurred by the Roman Pope's interference with the cultural practices of Chinese Christians and the abandonment of Matteo Ricci's adaptive policies, significantly disrupted the flourishing China-West exchanges.

Additionally, the later Qing rulers' failure to recognize the global impact of the Industrial Revolution resulted in missed opportunities for East-West interactions. Despite these setbacks, from the 16th to the mid-18th centuries, the influence of Chinese culture on the West and the dissemination of Western culture in China reached unprecedented heights.

With nearly a quarter of the 21st century behind us, as we navigate the complexities of the world it is crucial to enhance exchanges, find common ground amidst differences, and collaborate to tackle multifaceted challenges. History offers us valuable lessons and profound insights.

The author is Zhang Guogang, professor at the History Department of Tsinghua University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Li Minjie /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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