Known historically as the Western Regions in Chinese history books, Xinjiang has long been a pivotal crossroads for the eastward diffusion of Buddhism and a key hub for trade and cultural exchange between China and the broader world.

Over the past two millennia, this region has witnessed the convergence of Chinese, Indian, Persian, Arab, and even ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, creating a rich mosaic of political, religious, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural interactions.

Islam is now the dominant religion in Xinjiang, Buddhism was once the preeminent faith here. The encounter between these two religions in ancient Xinjiang represents a momentous chapter in both the history of world religions and the evolution of global civilizations.

The decline of Buddhism and the rise of Islam

The string of desert oases scattered across the Tarim Basin served as crucial relay stations on the ancient Silk Road, acting as nodes where ideas and cultures interacted and where the complexities of ethnic relations were most evident. This network of oases also formed a critical road in the history of world civilizations. Beginning in the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) over two millennia ago, this road was divided into two routes: the southern route centering around Khotan (modern-day Hetian), and the northern one centering around Kucha (modern-day Kuqa). Both routes converged at Shule (modern-day Kashi), from where travelers could continue westward, crossing the Congling (present-day Pamir Plateau) to reach Central Asia, West Asia, and South Asia.

Buddhism began its journey from the Gandhara region in northwest India to Central Asia around the 3rd century BC. By the 1st century BC, it had already made inroads into Xinjiang. However, in the early 7th century, following the founding of Islam by Muhammad in West Asia, Islam gradually expanded into Central and South Asia, profoundly altering the religious landscape across the Asian continent.

The extensive spread of Islam in China's Xinjiang region dates back to the mid-10th century with the ascendance of the Karakhanid Khanate. Following over four centuries of intricate political and military struggles, Islam eventually solidified its dominance during the Yuan dynasty, when the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, which fervently practiced Islam, established its rule over Xinjiang. The Mongol Khans began to actively promote Islam, and by 1389, the last significant Buddhist stronghold in Xinjiang, Gaochang (modern-day Turpan), had shifted predominantly to Islam.

Khotan, a vital hub along the southern route of the Silk Road, is noted as the earliest region in Xinjiang to embrace Buddhism. According to Chinese and Tibetan historical records, around 70 BC, a monk named Vairocana from Kasmira (present-day Kashmir) was the first to introduce Buddhism to Khotan. The King of Khotan soon converted to Buddhism and constructed a monastery for Vairocana. This monastery, known as the Zanmo Temple in sources from the Northern and Southern Dynasties, was identified by the British explorer M. A. Stein during his early 20th-century expeditions to Xinjiang. Its ruins were found approximately 20 kilometers south of present-day Hetian.

In the history of Chinese Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism emerged as the predominant tradition in Khotan. A Sanskrit version of the Prajnaparamita Sutra, which was highly regarded in the Central Plains of China, was brought from Khotan during the Three Kingdoms period. Buddhism in Khotan reached its zenith in the 5th century, with "small stupas erected in front of every household." However, from the 7th century onward, Buddhism began a gradual decline.

By the early 11th century, Khotan had fallen to the Karakhanid Khanate, leading to a sharp decline in local Buddhism. The history of Buddhism in Khotan serves as a microcosm of the Buddhist experience in the desert oases of Xinjiang. In places like Kucha, Gaochang, and Shule, Buddhism thrived and then gradually waned, ultimately succumbing to the sweeping Islamization of Central Asia and eventually fading from the historical record.

Religious transformations and ethnic integration

The vibrant trade activities along the Silk Road, combined with the nomadic lifestyle and military endeavors of the Mongolian steppe, rendered the ethnic dynamics in the Xinjiang region remarkably intricate. A diverse array of ethnic groups—including the Yuezhi, Xiongnu (Huns), Turks, Uighurs, Tubo, Khitans, Mongols, and Tanguts, as well as the Han people from the Central Plains—played pivotal roles in this region, weaving a rich tapestry of historical civilizations and religious traditions.

In the mid-6th century, the Turks, a new nomadic group, emerged on the Mongolian steppe, soon dividing into two factions: the Western Turkic Khaganate, west of the Altai Mountains, and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in the eastern regions. The Eastern Turkic Khaganate was vanquished by the Tang dynasty in 630, followed by the Western Turkic Khaganate in 658, enabling the Tang to unify the Western Regions and elevate Buddhism in Xinjiang to an unprecedented zenith.

However, this period of consolidation was soon disrupted when the Turks rebelled against the Tang dynasty. In 744, the Tang, in alliance with the Ouigours of the northern desert, decisively quelled the insurgency. In recognition of their service, the Ouigour leader was bestowed the title of Khagan by the Tang court, thereby establishing the Ouigour Khaganate. The Ouigours, ancestors of the modern Uygur people, thus emerged as a distinct entity in Chinese history. In 788, the Ouigour Khagan formally requested the Tang court to rename their people Huihu (Uighurs). The Uighurs maintained exceptionally close ties with the Tang dynasty, assisting in neutralizing the Turkish threat and later aiding in suppressing the An Lushan Rebellion. While most Uighurs practiced Buddhism, a minority adhered to Manichaeism. Their culture was characterized by a high degree of synthesis; their Buddhist practices were likely influenced by the Turks, while their adherence to Manichaeism may have been adopted from the Central Plains. The Uighurs also developed their script based on the Sogdian script of Central Asia and utilized Chinese characters in their everyday life.

In 840 AD, the Uighur Khaganate, which had been a dominant force on the Mongolian steppe, was overrun by the ascending Kyrgyz forces. The fall of the Khaganate led to the dispersion of Uighur tribes across various regions. One faction migrated into the interior of China, settling in the Hexi Corridor and becoming known as the Ganzhou Uighur.

Another group traversed the northern route of the Tianshan Mountains, eventually relocating south to the Turpan region, where they became known as the Western Uighur. By the late 9th century, this group founded the Uighur Kingdom of Gaochang, which initially embraced Manichaeism while also practicing Mahayana Buddhism, translating Buddhist scriptures into the Khwarazmian script.

A third faction crossed the Pamir Mountains into Central Asia, where they allied with local tribes to establish the Karakhanid Khanate, encompassing parts of Central Asia and present-day Xinjiang. With Islam having already taken root in Central Asia, it soon became the state religion of the Karakhanid Khanate and began to spread to neighboring Buddhist centers, including Khotan.

Around 1006, the city of Khotan was conquered; numerous Buddhist temples were destroyed, and Buddhists were compelled to convert to Islam. Many monks fled to Qinghai, integrating with the local Tibetan population, an event documented in the Tibetan text The History of the Khotanese Dharma (Li yul chos kyi lo rgyus in Tibetan transliteration).

In the early 12th century, a new power emerged in the Western Regions with the arrival of the Khitans, who had retreated from the Central Plains. In 1124, they established the Western Liao dynasty and, a decade later, subjugated both the Uighur Kingdom of Gaochang and the Karakhanid Khanate. The Western Liao, inheriting many traditions from the previous Liao dynasty, maintained a strong devotion to Buddhism while adopting a tolerant policy towards Islam. Consequently, Islam began to spread eastward to regions such as Aksu, gradually displacing Buddhism. The once-thriving Buddhist centers fell into decline, although the conversion process was relatively peaceful.

In 1218, the Mongol forces annihilated the Western Liao, and the Uighur Kingdom of Gaochang came under the dominion of Genghis Khan. Despite this, Buddhism continued to thrive in Gaochang. However, subsequent years saw a rebellion among the Mongol nobility north of the Tianshan Mountains. In 1275, the insurgents moved south, attacking the Uighur Kingdom of Gaochang, who had remained loyal to the Yuan dynasty. The ancient city of Gaochang was eventually destroyed, and the Uighur royal family retreated to Gansu. Without the protection of their rulers, Buddhism in Gaochang gradually faded from prominence.

In the sixth year of the Zhizheng era of the Yuan dynasty (1346), the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, which governed the Western Regions, witnessed the rise of a Mongol Khan devoted to Islam. His ascent significantly accelerated the Islamization of the region. By this period, the majority of Mongols, Uighur and other ethnic groups in Xinjiang had largely converted to Islam, with Buddhism persisting primarily in Hami, a region closer to inland China, until the early 16th century.

The Qing dynasty (1616–1912), with its deep ties to Mongol nobility and a strong allegiance to Tibetan Buddhism, inherited the privileges of the Mongol elite in the Western Regions. Emperor Qianlong of the Qing dynasty even bestowed the name "Xinjiang" upon this territory. Initially, Tibetan Buddhist monks were dispatched to establish temples and spread the Dharma primarily to serve the border guards. Subsequently, Han Chinese Buddhist monks also journeyed to Xinjiang to propagate their teachings.

Throughout Xinjiang's intricate history of ethnic and religious interplay, its inhabitants have continually sought spiritual practices that resonate with their evolving identities. The Khwarazmian script, for instance, has transformed from its early script to the contemporary Uygur script, mirroring shifts in cultural influences. Today, the Uygur-speaking populace of Xinjiang includes not only the descendants of historical Ouigours, Huihus (Uighurs) and Turks but also Sogdians from Central Asia, Mongols from the steppes, Tibetans and Tanguts from the Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia regions, as well as Han and Khitan from the Central Plains. In their spiritual lives, they have maintained a rich collection of Buddhist and indigenous cultural legacies.

During my exploration of Buddhist relics in Xinjiang, I observed that most of these sites are safeguarded by the Uygur communities. According to them, "these are the legacies of our ancestors who embraced Buddhism, so it is our duty to preserve these invaluable cultural treasures."

The author is Li Silong, professor at the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Peking University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Deng Zhiyu /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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