The rise and fall of the ancient Turks

During the Shang and Zhou periods (16th to 3rd century BC), the nomadic tribes of northern China were collectively referred to as the Beidi. By the time of the Qin and Han dynasties (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD), they were known as the Dingling. After the 6th century AD, these groups became identified as the Tiele. The Tiele people comprised a number of independent tribes, the majority of which roamed across the Mongolian Plateau, northern Central Asia, and southern Siberia. Over time, they became subject to the dominion of various powers, including the Xiongnu (Huns), Xianbei, and Rouran Khaganates of the Mongolian steppe.

In the 6th century, a clan of the Tiele people, the Ashina tribe, rose to prominence. They consolidated power by uniting other Tiele tribes. In the year 552, they overthrew the Rouran Khaganate, which controlled the Mongolian Plateau. This marked the establishment of the Turkic Khaganate, and from that moment, the term Turk (Türk) came into being on the stage of history, a name that has endured to the present day.

At its zenith, the Turkic Khaganate extended its domain from the Xing'an Mountains in the east to the northern reaches of the Syr Darya River in Central Asia (modern-day Kazakhstan steppes) in the west, stretching as far south as the Yinshan Mountains. Before the founding of the Sui dynasty (581–618), the Chinese heartland was for a long time engulfed in turmoil, which enabled the Turkic cavalry to launch frequent incursions. During this period, Northern Chinese states like the Northern Zhou and Northern Qi even submitted to Turkic dominance and paid tribute.

However, the unification of China under the Sui dynasty dramatically altered the balance of power. The newly strengthened Chinese dynasty compelled the Turks to gradually submit, leading to the division of their empire into two factions: the Eastern and Western Turks. The Eastern Turks continued their nomadic existence on the Mongolian Plateau, while the Western Turks migrated to the Zungarian Basin and the eastern part of the Kazakh steppes, north of the Syr Darya River in Central Asia.

Following the collapse of the Sui Dynasty, the Turkic Khaganate briefly resisted the Tang dynasty, but in 630, the Tang decisively defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. By 657, the Tang had similarly vanquished the Western Turkic Khaganate. In the aftermath, the Tang established military and administrative bodies such as the Yanran Protectorate, Anxi Protectorate, and Beiting Protectorate, respectively governing the Mongolian Plateau, Xinjiang, and parts of Central Asia. Troops and officials were deployed by the imperial court to these institutions, effectively bringing much of the Turkic tribes and their lands under the dominion of the Tang dynasty.

In the years that followed, the Turks briefly reconstituted their khaganate on the Mongolian Plateau, which came to be known as the Later Turkic Khaganate. However, by 744, this khaganate was defeated by the Tang dynasty, in alliance with the Huihe (Ouigour) tribes—ancestors of today's Uygur people in China—who were then nomads in the region north of present-day Mongolia. Thus, the final chapter of the ancient Turks' presence came to an end.

The relationship between the ancient Turks and contemporary Turkic-Speaking Ethnic Groups

Following the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate on the Mongolian Plateau in 744, the various Turkic tribes dispersed in multiple directions, marking a pivotal moment in their historical trajectory. Some of these tribes ventured southward to northern China, where they gradually assimilated into the Han Chinese people of the Central Plains. Others migrated westward to the northern expanses of present-day Xinjiang, particularly the Zungarian Basin, and onto the steppes near the Syr Darya in Central Asia. This westward migration had a profound impact, reshaping both the demographic composition and cultural landscape of Central Asia and Xinjiang.

Over time, several Turkic tribes continued their migration further west, traversing regions around the Aral Sea, Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus, ultimately reaching the Anatolian Peninsula, the heart of modern-day Turkey. Prior to their arrival, these regions were predominantly inhabited by people speaking Indo-European languages, whose physical traits were largely Caucasoid. These included ancient groups such as the Sogdians, Scythians, Tocharians, and Iranians, who were markedly distinct from the Turkic peoples, both linguistically and phenotypically, with the Turks speaking languages of the Altaic family and displaying East Asian (Mongoloid) features.

As the Turks expanded westward, they subjugated local populations and established dominion over existing regimes, compelling them to adopt the Turkic language. Over the centuries, intermarriage between the Turkic tribes and indigenous groups facilitated a blending of cultures and lineages, giving rise to a mosaic of Turkic-speaking ethnicities across Central Asia and further west into the lands of Turkey. This cultural and genetic amalgamation resulted in the formation of numerous ethnic groups, characterized by a fusion of both Caucasoid and Mongoloid traits. Though these groups later adopted Turkic languages, linguistic differences existed between them, and their customs evolved into a syncretic blend of Turkic and local traditions.

Consequently, contemporary Turkic-speaking ethnic groups diverge significantly from the original nomadic Turks and from the indigenous populations of the regions they now inhabit. Despite their shared linguistic heritage within the Turkic family, they have each developed distinct cultural identities and historical narratives. Among these Turkic-speaking peoples are the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Tatars, Azerbaijanis, Chuvash, Yakuts, and Turks—comprising approximately 30 ethnic groups in total.

The relationship between the Turks and modern Turkey

The Anatolian Peninsula, the heartland of modern-day Turkey, was historically the core region of the Byzantine Empire, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire. Today, Turkey's second-largest city, Istanbul, was once the Byzantine capital, known as Constantinople. Inhabited predominantly by Indo-European peoples, Anatolia was a cultural and linguistic hub where Greek and Latin, written in Byzantine script, were the dominant languages.

During the 8th and 9th centuries, nomadic Turkic tribes from the Mongolian steppes began a westward migration, gradually reaching Central Asia. A portion of these tribes continued their journey further west, eventually arriving in Anatolia. Among them were the Ottomans, a tribe whose destiny would reshape the region. The Ottomans settled in Anatolia and, in time, forged the Ottoman Empire, the direct precursor of today's Republic of Turkey.

The Ottomans, originally a nomadic Turkic people descending from the Western Turks of Central Asia, migrated to Anatolia in the 12th century. By the 13th century, they had established a small independent principality within the region. Steeped in a martial nomadic tradition, the Ottomans rapidly grew in strength. In 1453, they captured Constantinople, effectively ending the Byzantine Empire and marking the rise of the Ottoman Empire.

Following their conquest of Anatolia, the Ottoman Turks imposed the Turkish language on the local population and intermarried with the indigenous peoples. This cultural and genetic blending gave rise to the modern Turkish people, whose appearance reflects a synthesis of both Eastern and Western traits.

By the late 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had consolidated its control over Anatolia and extended its reach into the Balkans. By the mid-16th century, Ottoman expansion encompassed North Africa, Eastern Europe, and vast swathes of the Middle East, including Iran. At its height, the Ottoman Empire ruled across three continents—Europe, Asia, and Africa—commanding a diverse and sprawling dominion.

However, by the late 18th century, the empire began to fragment, with numerous territories gaining independence over time. In 1923, the final remnants of the Ottoman Empire's feudal monarchy were abolished, and the Republic of Turkey emerged.

The origins of the Uygur People

The Uygur people of China are a composite ethnic group, shaped by the convergence of nomadic Uygur tribes—historically known as Huihe (Ouigour)—from the Mongolian steppes, who migrated westward in 840, and the indigenous inhabitants of the oases in the Tarim Basin, present-day Xinjiang.

The Huihe people were speakers of a Turkic language, which was widely used across the Mongolian steppes, the Zungarian Basin, and southern Siberia by various tribes within the Dingling, Gaoche, Tiele, Turkic, and Huihe federations. Though regional dialects varied, their language belonged to the Turkic branch of the Altaic language family. Like other Turkic-speaking groups, the Huihe originally employed a Turkic script for writing.

The name Uygur and its older form, Ouigour, are phonetic approximations of the same Turkic term, referring to a tribe whose roots lay in the Mongolian steppes. The ancient Ouigour were nomadic people, inhabiting regions north of present-day Mongolia, along the Selenga River, south of Lake Baikal. In 552, the Ashina clan consolidated control over the Mongolian steppes, establishing the Turkic Khaganate. The Ouigour, alongside other nomadic tribes, were soon subjugated by the Turkic Khaganate, becoming part of its expansive network of subordinate tribes.

In 744, the Tang dynasty, in alliance with the Ouigour and other Tiele tribes, decisively overthrew the Turkic Khaganate. Among the many Tiele tribes that roamed the Mongolian steppes, the Ouigour emerged as the most formidable. With the fall of the Turkic Khaganate, the leader of the Ouigour promptly dispatched emissaries to Chang'an, seeking recognition from the Tang imperial court. In 745, Emperor Xuanzong formally conferred the title of Khagan upon the Ouigour leader, cementing the Ouigour's newfound status as the dominant power on the northern steppes. They subjugated other nomadic groups, establishing the Ouigour Khaganate, whose territorial boundaries closely aligned with modern Mongolia.

Over the subsequent decades, the Ouigour Khagans regularly paid tribute to the Tang dynasty and accepted imperial titles, operating as a vassal state under Tang suzerainty. The Ouigour provided military support to the Tang, often sending cavalry to quell internal uprisings and forming alliances against external threats, particularly the Tubo Kingdom. Trade between the two powers flourished, with horses and silk being exchanged in significant quantities. In the long history of the northern steppes, few groups enjoyed as close and harmonious relations with the Central Plains dynasties as the Ouigour did. As a testament to these bonds, three imperial princesses—Princess Ningguo, Princess Xian'an, and Princess Taihe—were married to the Ouigour Khagans. These were the only instances in over a millennium of Chinese history where biological daughters of emperors were wed to rulers of minority regimes, a practice dating back to the marriage alliances of the Western Han dynasty.

In 840, the collapse of the Ouigour Khaganate, brought about by external invasions and internal discord, forced the Ouigour people to disperse from their homeland on the Mongolian steppes. Those who remained in the northern regions gradually assimilated into the Mongol tribes that soon migrated there.

The fleeing Ouigour people divided into several factions, moving both southward and westward under the leadership of various chieftains. The southern group entered Inner Mongolia and the Central Plains, where, over time, they merged with the Han Chinese, effectively blending into the local population.

The westward-migrating Ouigour people further split into two distinct groups. One faction settled around Zhangye in the Hexi Corridor, where they eventually integrated with local Mongolian and other ethnic groups, giving rise to what is now known as the Yugur people in China. The other faction continued their migration into present-day Xinjiang, where they gradually subdued the indigenous regimes of the southern oases, establishing a permanent presence.

Before 840, the southern Tarim Basin in Xinjiang was home to a diverse array of ethnic groups, including the Sakas, Qiang, and Han Chinese, but neither Turks nor Ouigour people were present. The indigenous inhabitants spoke a variety of languages, none of which were Uygur. In terms of appearance, these groups generally exhibited Caucasian features, such as "high nose bridges and deep-set eyes." In contrast, the Ouigour people of the Mongolian steppes displayed more Mongoloid traits, including "broader faces, smaller eyes, and flat noses."

Following their migration into southern Xinjiang, the Ouigour people engaged in protracted warfare, gradually subjugating the oasis states controlled by the indigenous peoples. By 1006, the last independent kingdom, the Kingdom of Khotan, fell to the Ouigour people, allowing them to seize control of all territories south of the Tianshan Mountains. Prior to this conquest, the Tarim Basin oases were linguistically diverse, with people speaking Indo-European languages such as Ancient Khotanese and the Karasahr languages, along with Chinese and Ancient Qiangic languages. However, with the destruction of the local kingdoms, these languages and scripts were systematically eradicated, and the Uygur language supplanted them. Thus, after 1006, the inhabitants of the Tarim Basin gradually adopted the Turkic language. Through intermarriage, the Ouigour people and the indigenous population gradually merged, forging a new ethnic identity. This blending of language, culture, and heritage eventually gave rise to the modern Uygur people, as they are known today.

The relationship between the Uygur People and Turkey

Although today's Uygur people have inherited the language of the ancient Ouigour tribes, they are no longer the nomadic, horseback-riding people of their ancestors, nor do they exhibit the distinct Mongoloid features historically associated with the Ouigour. In terms of lifestyle and production, they have largely adopted the agrarian practices of the indigenous populations of the Tarim Basin. Thus, while the Uygur people retain the historic name Ouigour, they have, over time, evolved into a distinct ethnic group.

It is therefore evident that the modern Uygur people of China and the ancient Turks, led by the Ashina clan, represent two entirely separate ethnic groups.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the ideology of Pan-Turkism emerged among the Tatars (commonly known as Volga Tatars) in Kazan, Russia, and in Turkey. This movement proclaimed that the numerous Turkic-speaking ethnic groups across the world constituted a single people, who ought to unite under Turkish leadership in an effort to restore the glory of the Ottoman Empire (1290–1922). Pan-Turkism remains influential in certain circles in Turkey and continues to receive covert endorsement from the Turkish government.

In the early 20th century, this ideology spread to Xinjiang, gaining traction primarily among Uygur intellectuals. Over time, it became the ideological bedrock for the East Turkistan separatist movements. However, in reality, aside from the shared linguistic ties—both speaking languages from the Turkic branch of the Altaic family—there is no historical connection between the Uygur people and Turkey.

During the waning years of the Qing dynasty from 1867 to 1878, a Central Asian warlord from Uzbekistan, Yaqub Beg, temporarily seized control of much of Xinjiang. During this period, he sold many Uygur people into slavery in Turkey and established a puppet regime known as the Yettishar Khanate, which received backing from the Sultan of Turkey, still under the banner of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan conferred upon Yaqub Beg the title of Mirahur Bashi (Chief of the Palace Stables) while Yaqub Beg recognized the Sultan as his sovereign, even minting coins in Xinjiang bearing the Sultan's image. However, in 1878, Zuo Zongtang led Chinese forces to defeat the Yettishar Khanate, restoring control over Xinjiang and ending Turkish ambitions in the region.

Despite the absence of any historical ties to Turkey, certain Uygur intellectuals, influenced by Pan-Turkism, continue to propagate the unfounded belief that the Uygurs and Turks share a familial bond. This misrepresentation of history requires careful scrutiny and critical reassessment.

The author is Yang Shengmin, Professor at Minzu University of China.

Liu Xian /Editor    Li Minjie /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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