The Central People's Government's sincerity and respect

In February 1949, during a conversation with visiting Soviet Communist leader Anastas Mikoyan at Xibaipo, Mao Zedong highlighted the unique challenges of supply difficulties and ethnic and religious issues in Xizang, saying, "We cannot simply solve the problem by sending in the army."

In March, considering the imminent comprehensive victory of the People's Liberation War, Mao Zedong emphasized the increased likelihood of to peacefully liberate more areas. Subsequently, several provinces, including Hunan, Ningxia, Xinjiang, Yunnan, and Xikang, were peacefully liberated, setting a precedent for the peaceful liberation of Xizang.

On January 20, 1950, the local government of Xizang expressed intention to send a "goodwill mission." Mao Zedong authorized the Foreign Ministry to respond that "the Xizang people demanded the exercise of appropriate regional autonomy under the unified leadership of the Central People's Government," and that "if the Lhasa authorities send delegates to Beijing to negotiate the peaceful liberation of Xizang, they will be well received."

To this end, the Central People's Government organized a significant amount of work. In 1950, four delegations were sent to Xizang for mediation to persuade the 14th Dalai Lama and the local government. On February 1, Zhang Jingcheng, a Tibetan cadre, was sent to Xizang with a letter from Liao Hansheng, then vice-chairman of the Qinghai Provincial People's Government, addressed to the 14th Dalai Lama and Regent Taktra Ngawang Sungrab. At the end of March, an eminent Han monk, Master Zhiqing, who had good relations with the political and religious circles in Xizang, left Chengdu for Xizang. On July 10, the 5th Gedar Tulku of Beri Monastery in Garze, Xikang Province, and a delegation of nine left Beri Monastery to journey to Xizang for peace talks.

However, these mediation activities suffered obstruction from imperialist aggressors and pro-imperialist separatists in Xizang. Many mediators were either driven away or detained, some delegations were broken up, and the Gedar Tulku was even poisoned to death in Qamdo.

Meanwhile, the local government of Xizang, incited by imperialist aggressors and dominated by the pro-imperialist separatists, expanded the local army and deployed regiments in areas around Qamdo along the western bank of the Jinsha River, in an attempt to halt the PLA's advance into Xizang. (Qamdo was the only way into Xizang from the southwest.)

In October 1950, PLA troops crossed the Jinsha River and won the Battle of Qamdo, shifting the political situation in the Xizang local government in favor of patriotic forces. The pro-imperialist separatist Regent Taktra Ngawang Sungrab was forced to step down, and on November 17, the 14th Dalai Lama assumed administration. The local government of Xizang was moving toward peaceful liberation.

On January 2, 1951, the 14th Dalai Lama moved to the Yadong region of Xizang, seeking assistance from the U.K., the U.S., India, and Indonesia, and exploring opportunities to flee abroad. However, no country was willing to openly support "Xizang independence." Consequently, the local government of Xizang split into two factions: the Lhasa Kashag that remained in Lhasa and the temporary Yadong Kashag.

Following this, the Xizang local government, after a meeting of government officials, decided to send delegates to Beijing for peace negotiations with the Central People's Government. On April 29, 1951, negotiations on the peaceful liberation of Xizang officially began between representatives of the Central People's Government and the local government of Xizang.

The first round of negotiations was essentially a preparatory meeting where both sides exchanged views on the procedures and steps for the negotiations. Li Weihan, the chief representative of the Central People's Government, said at the meeting, "We are one family, so negotiations can be conducted both formally and informally; any opinions can be openly discussed. Let's work together to get things done."

On May 2, during the second talk, the issue of the PLA's entry into Xizang was addressed. Li Weihan explained the necessity of the PLA's presence in Xizang, stating, "Xizang is an integral part of the People's Republic of China, and the PLA's entry into Xizang to safeguard national defense is a policy that cannot be altered. Stationing troops in Xizang is essential to defend national security, prevent imperialist invasion, and ensure the safety of people in Xizang.

On May 10, in the fourth negotiation session, both sides discussed the content of the Ten-Article Agreement.

On May 21, in the final talk, they addressed technical issues, including the wording of the agreement in both Chinese and Tibetan. Representatives from both sides refined and polished the text of the agreed terms until the expected results were achieved.

Finally, after six rounds of formal negotiations, on May 23, representatives of both sides signed the Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Xizang (also known as the 17-Article Agreement). The signing of this agreement symbolized the peaceful liberation of Xizang.

The core content of the 17-Article Agreement is the expulsion of imperialist forces, with the Central People's Government assuming responsibility for all foreign affairs related to the Xizang region. The agreement explicitly ensures that the traditional status and powers of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni will remain unchanged, and officials from the former Xizang local government are allowed to continue in their roles. In addressing internal issues and the legacy of the old system in Xizang, the Chinese government implemented a flexible policy of leniency and patience.

It is worth noting that the 17-Article Agreement was drafted in both Chinese and Tibetan. During the negotiations, the terms were revised multiple times, with each change reflected in both versions and approved by Xizang local representatives. Huang Mingxin, who worked on the translation, observed, "Some argue that the 17-Article Agreement was signed under the threat of bayonets. Although I was not directly involved in the negotiations with the Xizang representatives, the meticulous and repeated revisions during the translation process clearly indicate that an agreement with such detailed revisions could not have been signed under duress." These details refute the claim by the Dalai clique that the 17-Article Agreement was a "coerced treaty."

The 17-Article Agreement: A protection for Xizang

To implement the 17-Article Agreement, Mao Zedong issued an order on May 25, 1951, for the PLA to enter Xizang. The PLA advanced peacefully into Xizang from Garze, Qamdo, Yunnan, Xinjiang, and Qinghai, taking control of Lhasa as well as strategic towns and border defense points, including Qamdo, Taizhao (present-day Gongbo'gyamda in Nyingchi), Gyangze, Xigaze, Yadong, Nagqu, Lhünze, Zayü, and Gartok. This process, which lasted for two years, brought an end to the era of Xizang having no defenses along its 4,000-kilometer border.

The Central People's Government, in line with the Constitution and the 17-Article Agreement, unified foreign affairs related to Xizang and abolished imperialist privileges in the region. On April 29, 1954, China and India signed the Agreement between the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China on Trade and Intercourse between the Xizang Region of China and India, which terminated India's privileges in Xizang. The Indian government officially recognized Xizang as part of Chinese territory and acknowledged China's sovereignty over Xizang.

On September 20, 1956, China signed with Nepal the Agreement on Maintaining Friendly Relations between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Nepal and on Trade and Intercourse between the Xizang Region of China and Nepal, eliminating Nepal's privileges in Xizang.

● On September 15, 1954, the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama attended the first session of the First National People's Congress.

● The 14th Dalai Lama was elected Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, while the 10th Panchen Lama was elected to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.

● On December 25, the 10th Panchen Lama was elected Vice Chairman of the Second National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in its first session. The 14th Dalai Lama wrote poems expressing his admiration for Chairman Mao Zedong during his stay in Beijing.

Thereafter, the Central People's Government consistently implemented the 17-Article Agreement, promoting the development of various undertakings in Xizang:

— In March 1951, Qamdo Primary School, the first modern school in Xizang, was established. In August 1952, Lhasa Primary School was founded. By the first half of 1957, Xizang had 98 public primary schools with 6,360 students, laying the foundation for a modern education system.

— On December 25, 1954, the Sichuan-Xizang Highway (from Ya'an to Lhasa) and the Qinghai-Xizang Highway (from Xining to Lhasa) were simultaneously opened to traffic, marking the end of Xizang's lack of modern road transportation. In 1956, Damxung Airport, the first airport in Xizang, was completed, and the first air route from Beijing to Lhasa was inaugurated, significantly improving the transportation conditions in the region.

—The construction of agricultural and water conservancy projects led to rapid development in agriculture. Major towns established hospitals, banks, stores, post offices, and other service institutions, as well as a number of small-scale factories and mines. Modern agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, and commerce began to develop in Xizang.

Historical evidence shows that the signing of the 17-Article Agreement led to permanent liberation of Xizang from imperialist control and ushered in a new era for the region.

The authors are Yang Liyuan, an assistant researcher at Contemporary Research Institute of the China Tibetology Research Center, and Yang Xiaochun, a Researcher at Contemporary Research Institute of the China Tibetology Research Center.

Liu Xian /Editor    Hu Min /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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