"Western Learning Spreading Eastward" refers to the historical trajectory during which Western intellectual currents began infiltrating China, commencing from the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and extending into the modern era. This period also overlaps with Western powers' attempts to colonize China, culminating in China's status as a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society.

Consequently, the collective memory of the Chinese people is indelibly marked by the humiliation of modern history, characterized by the unequal cultural exchanges between East and West that accompanied the rise of Western Learning Spreading Eastward.

Actually, at the outset of this process in the late Ming Dynasty, the transmission of Western knowledge occurred under relatively fair conditions, which represents a notable exception in the history of Western colonialism.

Why was it "relatively fair" when considering that the then missionaries were backed by the Western military power? What accounts for this unusual circumstance? And what forces propelled the spread of Western Learning to the East?

The revolution of productive forces

Marx and Engels, in their analysis of the dialectical interplay between productive forces and relations of production, elucidated the fundamental laws underpinning societal evolution. They posited that the primary driver of human historical activity is the production of material necessities, with the dialectical tension between productive forces and production relations propelling historical development. In this dynamic, productive forces emerge as the decisive catalyst.

Viewed through the lens of social development, the phenomenon of Western Learning Spreading Eastward is a reflection of a revolution in productive forces. The maturation of these forces in the West created a relatively advanced state of Western knowledge, thus enabling its spread eastward. Initially, Western Learning Spreading Eastward represented a form of interaction distinct from colonial expansion, embodying the global reach of modern capitalism as it engaged with Eastern powers.

The early ascent of European capitalism positioned it as the vanguard of this global transformation. Driven by the relentless quest for expanding markets, the bourgeoisie sought to establish a global presence, forging connections and exerting influence everywhere. This era marked the transition from human history to world history, with the bourgeoisie at the forefront of this shift. Marx insightfully noted that the bourgeoisie, by the rapid advancement of production instruments and vastly improved means of communication, integrated even the most barbarous nations into civilization and the low prices of its commodities served as heavy artillery, dismantling all barriers and compelling even the most resistant of cultures to capitulate.

The drive of capital

Interpreting the phenomenon of Western Learning Spreading Eastward solely through the lens of productive forces is inadequate. The essence of historical events is shaped by the motives of the entities driving these forces. Hence, understanding the international context of Western Learning Spreading Eastward is essential to comprehending this profound historical shift.

Circa 1500, Europe witnessed a pivotal transformation. The Renaissance, spanning the 14th to 16th centuries, the 16th-century Commercial Revolution, and the Reformation—interwoven with the nascent capitalist system—heralded a new epoch in European history. Beneath the veneer of humanism, fostered by intellectual liberation, lay a burgeoning spirit of adventurism and self-interest. This era's ethos, closely tied to the primitive accumulation of capital, was the engine driving Europe's global expansion.

Thus, the transition from national histories to a global framework is "inextricably linked with the primitive accumulation of capital by European nations and their overseas ventures." Marx observed that the primitive accumulation of capital was far from the "idyllic process of liberation" portrayed by bourgeois economists. Rather, it was a process marked by brutality, coercion, and exploitation. Historical examples include the enclosure movement in England, the discovery of the Americas, and colonial rule over Africa.

British scholar Michael Greenberg noted: commerce was the catalyst that facilitated the encounter between East and West in modern times, yet it was the Westerners who sought China's wealth, not the other way around. The Western colonizers who engaged with China in the 16th and 17th centuries, whether through forceful incursions along the southeastern coast or through re-export trade involving Chinese goods, were merely executing a step in their broader strategic design. Their ultimate ambition was to fully dominate China and establish colonial rule.

Almost all European colonizers who arrived in China via Southeast Asia did so through military aggression, similar to their approaches in South America and Southeast Asia. The distinction in the East was the formidable resistance they encountered. Confronted with the robust economy, rich culture, and military strength of the Chinese imperial state, the colonizers were compelled to resort to diplomatic strategies.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the East. In 1510 and 1511, they occupied Goa in India and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, subsequently extending their operations to China's coastal regions. In 1513, Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares organized an official delegation to Lingding Island near the Pearl River estuary, where they erected a stone pillar bearing the Portuguese royal emblem to assert territorial claims. By 1557, through bribery of local officials, the Portuguese secured a lease on Macau, establishing a foothold on the Chinese mainland.

Following their conquest of Mexico and Peru in 1519, the Spanish crossed the Atlantic and occupied the Philippines in 1563. In 1575, they proposed trade with China as a condition for assisting Fujian commander Wang Wanggao in suppressing the pirate Lin Feng.

The Dutch were the first Western nation to use military force to seize Chinese territory. After colonizing Java under the banner of the "Dutch East India Company" in 1596, the Dutch fleet penetrated the coastal regions of Fujian and, by 1641, had occupied the Pescadores (Penghu) and Taiwan. Between 1653 and 1694, they dispatched seven missions to Beijing.

This historical development was fundamentally driven by Western powers' pursuit of colonization. From the outset, Europeans did not arrive in China to spread Western learning; they came as invaders and colonizers. After the discovery of the New World and in their quest to expand global markets, Europeans turned their attention to a nation that had once declared "no plank shall enter the sea."

The authors are Luo Benqi and Fang Guogen at School of Marxism, Anqing Normal University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Li Minjie /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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