Xizang has been an integral part of China since ancient times. This is supported by historical facts and should be free of controversy.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), Xizang was incorporated into the central administration. The central government then established the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs to manage local affairs in the region, stationed troops, set up courier stations, collected taxes, conducted censuses, and appointed thirteen official positions "Wanhu" meaning local commanders.

During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the government implemented a policy of multiple enfeoffment, conferring honorific titles on political and religious leaders, and setting up regional military commissions such as dusi and weisuo.

The Qing Dynasty (1616–1911) further refined its governance over Xizang, establishing Kashag (cabinet) — a local government system featuring joint governance by monastic and lay authorities —during Emperor Kangxi's reign, setting up the office for Grand Ministers Resident in Xizang to supervise and manage local administration on behalf of the central authorities during Emperor Yongzheng's reign, and formalizing the system of equal governance by the Grand Minister Resident and the Dalai Lama by issuing the Imperially Approved Ordinance for Better Governance of Xizang (the 29-Article Ordinance) during Emperor Qianlong's reign. The Ordinance clearly stipulated that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and other Living Buddhas had to follow the procedure of "drawing lots from the golden urn."

However, after the Opium War in 1840, China was frequently invaded by foreign powers, resulting in land cessions, indemnities, and a series of unequal treaties. The faltering Qing government was unable to adequately oversee its border regions, and Xizang under the feudal serfdom system was not spared from calamity.

Manipulated by external forces, the division crisis in Xizang became more frequent, highlighted by three significant events: the invasion of Xizang by British troops, the flight of the Dalai Lama and the Simla Conference, as well as the "expulsion of Han" incidents.

British invasion of Xizang

As early as 1600, Britain established the East India Company in India. In 1849, Britain conquered the whole of India, turning it into a British colony and a base for further expansion eastward. In the late 19th century, Britain encroached on Gurkha (part of present-day Nepal) and Bhutan.

In 1888, British troops launched the first invasion of Xizang, using military force to coerce the signing of the first unequal treaty with Xizang, which resulted in the annexation of Sikkim as a British protectorate, the cession of large areas of Xizang, and the opening of a trade port in Yadong (now a district under Xigaze, Xizang Autonomous Region).

In November 1903, British troops invaded Xizang again, advancing deep into the region. Over 3,000 British soldiers, equipped with machine guns and cannons under the command of Colonel Francis Younghusband, crossed Chinese border, defeated the Xizang military and civilians guarding the Palri and Gyangze forts, rampaged through the area with burning, killing, and looting, and ultimately marched north to Lhasa.

The 13th Dalai Lama fled to the inland, plunging Xizang into chaos. In response, the Qing government, under Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu, issued orders stripping the Dalai Lama of his title. Meanwhile, the British forced the Xizang local government to sign the unequal Lhasa Treaty. Key provisions of the treaty included dismantling border defenses, paying an indemnity of 7.5 million rupees (later reduced to 2.5 million, paid by the Qing central government), opening additional trade ports in Xizang under British supervision, and stipulating that without British consent, the land in Xizang could not be sold, rented, or leased to other countries, nor could any third country interfere in Xizang affairs.

The British invasion further deepened the suffering of an already impoverished Xizang, while also creating a rift between the Qing central government and the Xizang local government, sowing seeds of division.

The Qing court was greatly shocked by these events. Emperor Guangxu declared: "Xizang has been a part of China for over 200 years. The region, vast and rich, has long been coveted by foreign powers. Recently, British troops have invaded Xizang and forced the locals to sign a treaty, leaving the situation unpredictable. Immediate measures must be taken to anticipate and prevent potential troubles, and plan for remediation and maintenance, such as cultivating the frontier, training the troops and preparing to defend our territory, to ensure the stability of our border regions."

To avert the border crisis in Xizang, following the success of the Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, presidents Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai proclaimed the establishment of a republic of five peoples, stating that "the foundation of the nation lies in the people; the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan peoples are of one, and the five peoples will be of one republic. Now that the five ethnic groups are united, all regions including Mongolia, Xizang, Hui, and Xinjiang are territories of China, and the peoples of these regions are citizens of the Republic of China (ROC)."

However, despite the establishment of the ROC, the presence of foreign powers and domestic warlords continued to destabilize Xizang.

Flight of the 13th Dalai Lama and the Simla Agreement

In 1895, following the first British invasion of Xizang, the situation in Xizang became urgent and increasingly complex. The Kashag regime and the three major monasteries (Ganden Monastery, Drepung Monastery and Sera Monastery) held a meeting, requesting that the 20-year-old Dalai Lama assume governance. The Qing Emperor issued an edict authorizing the Dalai Lama to handle religious affairs and sent envoys with lavish gifts.

The 13th Dalai Lama fled Xizang twice, once to inland China and once to India. From childhood to his assumption of governance, he was in a period of turmoil in Xizang, and the Qing dynasty was too weak to manage Xizang. During the British invasion of Lhasa in 1904, the 13th Dalai Lama fled to Mongolia and Shanxi and was subsequently stripped of his title by the Qing government. However, he later resumed the title after visiting the Qing court. The Qing Dynasty's internal instability and Britain's strong stance contributed to Dalai Lama's growing desire for separation.

Despite its struggles, the Qing Dynasty did not abandon Xizang. Officials such as Zhang Yintang, Lian Yu, and Zhao Erfeng were dispatched to manage Xizang affairs. Zhang Yintang implemented reforms that temporarily improved the situation. However, Zhao Erfeng's decision to deploy Sichuan troops led to increased conflicts, plunging Xizang into further chaos. In February 1910 (the second year of Emperor Xuantong's reign), Sichuan troops entered Lhasa, sparking unrest. Amid rumors and mounting disorder, the 13th Dalai Lama fled again, this time taking refuge in Kalimpong, India, with British support. The Qing court responded by issuing an edict, once more stripping him of his title. He remains the only Dalai Lama to have been stripped of his title twice by the central government.

Afterward, the 13th Dalai Lama, influenced by British forces, became more determined to seek Xizang independence.

In 1913, under the pretext of mediating border disputes, Britain proposed the convening of the Simla Conference to demarcate the India-Xizang boundary, with the ultimate aim of separating Xizang from China. The Qing government sent Chen Yifan (a Chinese modern diplomat, Second Secretary at the Qing Dynasty's Embassy in the United Kingdom) as the chief representative, while the British government's chief representative was British-Indian Foreign Minister Sir Henry McMahon.

Although China suggested that the conference be held in Beijing with representatives from both China and Britain, Britain insisted on holding it in its colony, India, with Xizang's local representative, Shedra Peljor Dorje (a pro-British noble and the Dalai Lama's envoy) as a separate party. This ultimately turned the conference into a tripartite meeting.

At the start of the conference, Peljor Dorje proposed six demands in accordance with a previously secret agreement with the British side, including Xizang independence, the demarcation of the China-Xizang border including Qinghai and parts of Sichuan, and the removal of China's resident officials in Xizang. Chen Yifan, the Chinese representative, immediately countered by asserting that Xizang was an integral part of China and that China had the right to station officials there. He also emphasized that Xizang's foreign affairs must be managed by the Chinese government as well as China's other such rights of governance over Xizang. In response, McMahon proposed a different plan, suggesting Xizang be divided into Inner and Outer Xizang, with Inner Xizang (including Tibetan populated areas in Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces) governed by Chinese authorities, and Outer Xizang to be autonomous with no Chinese governance.

This treacherous draft treaty was met with widespread opposition from the Chinese public. President Yuan Shikai ordered Chen Yifan not to sign it. However, the British representative secretly communicated with Xizang's local representative Peljor Dorje, presenting a boundary map that ceded 90,000 square kilometers of the land of Xizang to Britain. The British also promised support for Xizang's independence if the Xizang side agreed to sign. Acting on orders from Lhasa, Peljor Dorje secretly signed the agreement with the British representatives. Chen Yifan, however, refused to sign the formal document. The Chinese government did not recognize the treaty signed between Britain and the Xizang local government. This illegal agreement, which the Chinese government never acknowledged, became known as the Simla Agreement. The so-called "McMahon Line" as new border established through this convention, continues to be a source of conflict today.

The "expulsion of Han" incident

In 1911, after the success of the Revolution of 1911, the Sichuan troops stationed in Xizang split into two factions: one part supported the Qing Emperor, and the other supported the revolutionary force, leading to internal chaos. Seizing the opportunity, Britain sought to promote Xizang's secession.

The year after the Revolution of 1911, the 13th Dalai Lama, who had been living in exile in India, returned to Lhasa. He supported Xizang troops in their attacks on the Sichuan forces, leading to another round of so-called mediation by Britain. The Resident official Zhong Ying of the national government of the ROC and the Sichuan troops were surrounded and forced to surrender, marking the first "expulsion of Han" incident.

On Oct. 30, 1933, the 13th Dalai Lama passed away in Lhasa at the age of 58. The national government of the ROC saw this as an opportunity to assert sovereignty over Xizang and appointed Huang Musong, Deputy Chief of the General Staff, to visit Lhasa. Huang Musong held several political talks with the Kashag authority but failed to achieve any positive results due to the Kashag's persistent secessionist stance. However, Huang Musong established in Lhasa a branch office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, restoring some of the Qing government administrative functions in managing Xizang affairs.

In January 1940, Wu Zhongxin, chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, arrived in Lhasa to oversee the reincarnation of the 14th Dalai Lama, Lamden Dorje, and reported his findings to the national government of the ROC. The national government, led by Chairman Lin Sen, approved the reincarnation without a lot-drawing ceremony. Wu Zhongxin, together with Regent Reting Rinpoche, presided over the enthronement ceremony. Wu later reported: "Reviewing this period, the relationship between the central government and Xizang was at its worst due to external influences from the British and internal upheavals initiated by the Dalai Lama, leading to frequent conflicts and disputes. To improve the situation, we must eliminate these negative influences to achieve further progress."

The second "expulsion of Han" incident occurred on the eve of the founding of the People's Republic of China. During the difficult years of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, Xizang separatists, under British manipulation, accelerated their efforts towards Xizang independence. In the summer of 1942, the Xizang's local government abruptly announced the establishment of a foreign affairs bureau, requiring the branch office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission to treat it as a foreign representative. The British government seized the opportunity to invade eastern Xizang, occupying areas such as Tiran, Mendang, and Baimagang according to the McMahon Line.

In 1946, at the "Pan-Asian Conference" in New Delhi, India, British diplomat Hugh E. Richardson lobbied for Xizang to send a representative delegation and advised the foreign affairs bureau and Regent Dazak to create a flag for Xizang. In a hurry, they produced a snow lion flag used by the Xizang army and sent it to the conference. During the event, a peculiar incident occurred: Xizang was depicted as being outside Chinese territory on the map, with the snow lion flag representing it. This matter was only rectified by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru after it was brought up by the Chinese delegation attending the meeting.

In July 1949, spurred by Hugh E. Richardson, Regent Dazak convened a meeting with all the Kalons (high-ranking officials of the Xizang government) and 15 other key officials to discuss severing political ties with China and expelling Han people. On July 8, Xizang local authorities, through the Kalimpong Radio in India, abruptly demanded the evacuation of the branch office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission from Lhasa, then dispatched troops to surround the government institutions, occupy the radio station, close the schools, and forcibly transported over a hundred individuals, including officials and their families, Han merchants, and Han lamas, in three batches to India. This marked the second "expulsion of Han" incident. The intent of the Xizang local government was clear: to sever ties with the national government of the ROC, prevent the Chinese People's Liberation Army from entering Xizang, and separate Xizang from its motherland.

Liu Xian /Editor    Hu Min /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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