Communication dates back to prehistoric times

Modern archaeological discoveries have rewritten and reconstructed the prehistory of Xizang, allowing us to describe Xizang's history and social development by drawing upon abundant physical evidence.

From about 100,000 to 50,000 years ago, early humans came from various places to settle on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Their traces can be found at Nwya Devu, a high-altitude archaeological site located in northern Xizang, the Piluo Site on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in southwest China's Sichuan Province, and the Xiadacuo Site in western Xizang. The Paleolithic artifacts discovered in recent years suggest a degree of intermingling of these culturally diverse ethnic groups.

Important Neolithic sites around 5,000 years ago, such as the Karuo and Xiao'enda sites in Qamdo, and the Changguogou and Qugong sites in central Xizang, have brought discoveries which show the unique characteristics of the ancient Plateau culture.   These findings also demonstrate similarities with cultural features from the same period, which have been found in sites along the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, for example, the millet-like crops unearthed at the Karuo Site, and the semi-subterranean adobe houses with red-burned earth, popular painted pottery patterns, and pottery shapes, etc.

All these unearthed cultural relics are highly comparable to the primitive cultures in the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River.

Since the beginnings of civilization, Xizang has undergone two stages of development. The first stage is known as the "Early Metal Period," which spanned from the 10th century BC to the 7th century AD. The second stage is characterized by the flourishing of the Tubo Kingdom from the 7th to 9th centuries.

In recent years, newly unearthed archaeological sites in Xizang such as the Gurgyam Cemetery, the Quta Cemetery, and the Sangdalongguo Cemetery in Nagqu all belong to the archaeological remains in the "Early Metal Period." These archaeological remains are closely related to the archaeological cultures in other parts of China such as those of ancient ethnic groups in the northern grasslands and southwestern mountainous areas. Research has pointed out that the cairn tombs, large-stone monuments, and animal-shaped ornaments prevalent on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau during this period all bear the characteristics of the northern grassland culture.

Archaeological evidence indicates a strong correlation between the ancient plateau culture and neighboring areas. The developmental journey of Xizang, spanning from prehistory to the Tubo period, reveals a sustained allure exerted by neighboring regions like the Central Plains, the North, and the Southwest. Moreover, Xizang's own progress demonstrates an increasingly strong affinity towards these regions. The interplay of these factors has significantly influenced the trajectory of Xizang's development.

The Plateau Silk Roads

Despite its harsh natural conditions, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau has never prevented the ancient ethnic groups living there from interacting with the outside world.

The inhabitants used several major roads and narrow trails winding between the plateau's numerous mountains and along waterways. They wisely chose different routes according to the season to avoid the worst of the wind, snow, and extreme cold, making full use of the topography and the distribution of water and grassland to steadily explore, repair, and maintain these roads.

Even in present times, the primary transportation routes on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau align with the aforementioned roads and trails in terms of their overall direction and major passes.

These Plateau Silk Roads serve as evidence of a profound connection between the Plateau culture and Chinese civilization.

Around the 7th century, the ancient tribes scattered across the Xizang region gradually merged with the ever stronger Tubo group, eventually forming the unified Tubo Kingdom (633–842).

Songtsen Gampo (617–650), king of Tubo, moved the capital from Shannan to what is present-day Lhasa. He then created the written Tibetan language, built castles like the Potala Palace and consolidated the kingdom. Through political peace marriage with the Tang dynasty (618–907) and by paying tribute to it, he and his successors learned from the Central Plains culture and the cultures of the nearby ethnic groups to develop their own systems and institutions, and thereby opened a new stage in Plateau culture.

As far as its geography is concerned, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau borders Xinjiang in the northwest, connecting it to the Silk Road; it adjoins Sichuan and Yunnan in the east, connecting with the Han-Tibetan-Qiang-Yi Corridor (a special geographical area in China where the Han, Tibetan, Qiang, Yi and other ethnic groups have long-standing interactions); it is also neighbors with India, Nepal, Bhutan, Kashmir and other South Asian countries and regions in the south and southwest, connecting with them through several natural routes through the mountains and valleys.

A large amount of gold and silverware, silk, horse harnesses, gold masks and decorative treasures of the Tubo Kingdom have been unearthed over the years. They incorporate characteristics of the Tang culture as well as the artistic styles and forms of the Sassanid, Sogdian, and Eurasian steppe cultures of that era. Illustrations depict historical scenes of envoys, caravans, eminent monks, military officers, and artisans of various countries of the Han and Tang dynasties traveling to and from the Central Plains via the Silk Roads across the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

In addition, the remains of ancient Tibetan inscriptions, Buddhist inscriptions, bronze bells and Buddhist temples recently discovered in the border areas of Xizang are also evidence of the communication between the Tubo Kingdom and the Central Plains, Central Asia, and South Asia.

During the Tang dynasty, the Plateau Silk Roads played a critical role in the formation and development of Tubo society and culture. It directly led to the Tubo's rapid early cultural development and smooth integration into the then most important, most developed system of Chinese civilization. This inevitably accelerated their progress towards high-level, more advanced production activities.

During this historical process, it was primarily the Tang culture that made the deepest impact and provided the "base color" for Xizang's local culture and society. The Tubo kingdom, particularly during the Tang dynasty, was heavily influenced by the Central Plains in terms of philosophy, religion, and ideology. This influence explains their cultural inclination towards the Central Plains in terms of psychology, identity, and choices since their inception.

It is not an overstatement to say that the integration of Xizang into the Chinese nation is the result of a longstanding relationship and the historical choices made by the ancestors of Tubo and other ethnic groups in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

The evidence for the effective jurisdiction over Xizang

After the breakup of the Tubo kingdom, the various ethnic groups which had been part of it did not cut their cultural ties with the Central Plains. Rather, they forged multifaceted relationships in the form of extensive exchanges such as ethnic integration, the transmission of Buddhism and the tea-horse trade. Later, this type of cultural integration played an important role in shaping the relationship between Xizang and the Central Plains in the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties.

The central governments during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties all exercised direct jurisdiction over Xizang affairs through political, economic, cultural, and religious measures, leaving rich and valuable tangible heritage for later generations.

For example, the imperial jade seal with a dragon-shaped knob used by the imperial preceptor of the Yuan dynasty to revive Buddhism and to command monks and nuns in all vassal states, and the "Great Precious Dharma King White Jade Seal" bestowed upon the 5th Karmapa Living Buddha by Emperor Yongle of the Ming dynasty, all reflect the cultural characteristics of the central dynasties' strategies for governing Xizang during the Yuan and Ming dynasties.

Both the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing dynasties (1616–1911) adopted policies of respecting Tibetan Buddhism. They also strengthened their governing strategies in handling ethnic relations among the Han, Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian and other ethnic groups as well as in dealing with the relationship between the local government and the central government. For example, in the Qing dynasty, the central government established the reincarnation system of Living Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism by conferring titles such as the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama. Through these measures, the jurisdiction and subordination relationship became more clearly defined between the central government and the local authority in Xizang.

During this period, the two-way cultural exchanges between Xizang and the rest of China developed rapidly, reaching a peak during the Qing dynasty, as seen in architecture, utensils, and decorative arts.

The famous golden urn, from which lots are customarily drawn to select the living Buddha, the golden seal of authority given to the 7th Dalai Lama Kelsang Gyatso, the drinking vessels with lotus and Buddhist decorations, and the golden edict given to the 11th Dalai Lama Khedrup Gyatso are typical examples of such cultural heritage.

The author is Huowei, professor and Dean of the School of History and Culture at Sichuan University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Liu Li /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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