In a speech titled Unity in Diversity and Ethnic Literature, Pan Yue, head of China's National Affairs Commission, pointed out that Chinese society is in a critical period of modernization, and the ideology, ethical and moral standards, and values of its people are complex and changing. This is an objective analysis rooted in reality.

One important reason for this situation is the long-standing presence of diverse views and debates in the international marketplace of ideas regarding narratives about China, including its history and current realities. The Chinese intellectual community is not only deeply influenced by these discourses but is also increasingly participating in discussions on these issues. A key question is how to understand China's long-term unity alongside its diversity.

Since the onset of Western expansion, a set of ideological and intellectual theories has developed that judge others based on subjective standards and perspectives. In Europe, wars and divisions were considered the norm, and the idea of "one nation, one country" that emerged during modern times was seen as natural. In contrast, the long-standing unity, stability, and vast size of China were viewed as abnormal and unreasonable. Some argued that the "Chinese empire" had long stagnated and that it would have entered modernity more easily if it had fragmented into multiple single-ethnicity nations like those in Europe. Many renowned Western philosophers are baffled by the harmonious coexistence of different ethnic groups and religions within Chinese society and struggle to understand how various elements of other civilizations have been peacefully localized throughout China's long history.

In the late Qing dynasty (1616–1911) and the early days of the Republic of China, various Western discourses on China and nationalist ideologies significantly impacted Chinese thought, sparking profound and extensive debates among intellectuals. During the early modern period, when China was weak, some reform-minded individuals tended to confuse the nation's long-term unity with a lack of motivation for reform. However, following the tragic consequences of European nationalism and political fragmentation after World War I, an increasing number of Chinese intellectuals began to recognize that China's long-term unity embodies rich wisdom and important values. They no longer viewed it as an obstacle to national strength but as a crucial foundation for rejuvenation.

Almost all important historians in modern China have recognized that narrating Chinese history through the concept of a "single nation," as introduced from Europe, is akin to trying to fit a square peg into a round hole. The key to accurately understanding Chinese history lies in exploring the stories of exchanges and integration among ethnic groups within the land of China. Historians describe the history of integration—especially between nomadic and agrarian groups—and the sinicization of foreign religions and peoples from various perspectives.

For instance, in the early 20th century, the historian of religion Chen Yuan (1880–1971) emphasized the significance of sinicization in his studies on the introduction of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism. The widespread use of this concept reflects a self-awareness that rejects the understanding of the Chinese nation through the European "single nation" lens and resists equating integration into China with assimilation into Han Chinese culture.

In the 1920s, Liang Qichao, who formulated the concept of "Chinese nation," conducted a thorough comparison between Chinese traditions and those of European countries. He argued that modern European nationalism reached its peak during World War I, embodying the fundamental spirit of "uniting internally and confronting externally." In contrast, China has never regarded the nation as the supreme form of human community. Its political philosophy has always aimed to "consider all human beings, thereby striving for peace in the whole world," with the "nation" being merely a stage in this process. This kind of supra-nationalist political theory deeply resonated with the populace, leading to an expansion of the constituent elements of the "Chinese people." Ethnic groups that entered the Central Plains would often choose to assimilate into Chinese culture, thereby broadening the membership of "Tianxia" (All under Heaven).

Liang noted that while Europe consists of dozens of countries, China has long existed as a unified entity. Even though China suffered tremendously in modern times when nationalism prevails, the value of its supra-nationalism in global culture necessitates reevaluation.

All of Liang's insights have significant implications for many international and domestic debates.

First, the tradition of supra-nationalism serves as an important ideological foundation for the development of the "Chinese nation" on Chinese soil. This concept transcends the idea of a nation as both a political entity and a group of people. The "Chinese nation," built on this tradition, represents a political and cultural community that goes beyond any single "nation/ethnicity."

The community of the Chinese nation is a national entity at the state level, encompassing not only the 56 ethnic groups present in China today but also those that have existed throughout Chinese history. The relationship between the Chinese nation and its various ethnic groups resembles that of a large family and its members. Some Western observers, upon encountering discussions of the Chinese nation or the community of the Chinese nation, may hastily assume that China is advocating for a "single nation/ethnicity." This perspective reflects a judgment based solely on their own standards.

Second, sinicization is the core mechanism for the ongoing development and growth of the Chinese nation, whereas China's tradition of supra-nationalism provides the ideological and cultural foundation for various forms of sinicization. The adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context represents a significant achievement of sinicization in contemporary China. However, both domestic and international scholars have sometimes misused the term sinicization to imply assimilation into Han Chinese culture, which is inaccurate and can be easily misconstrued by those with ulterior motives. In reality, the Han ethnicity is just one component of the broader Chinese nation.

Third, China's tradition of supra-nationalism significantly enhances the unity and solidarity of the Chinese nation, whereas European nationalism has often been the ideological root of internal divisions and frequent wars in Europe.

Undoubtedly, Liang Qichao's analysis is forward-looking. In his era, Western European countries, leveraging their global strength, created ideological traps worldwide through nationalist ideas, including in China, which triggered intense conflicts. However, today, as the United States and Western European countries like the United Kingdom and France grapple with frequent ethnic conflicts and ongoing wars rooted in nationalism, the painful consequences of nationalism have become starkly evident in Europe. This ideology has long lost its appeal in Chinese society.

Reflecting on the violent history of nationalism in Europe since modern times, particularly the devastation wrought by the two World Wars, it becomes clear that debates over national issues are not merely theoretical discussions but are often tied to the suffering of people across Europe and beyond. These debates are fraught with political struggles, deceit, and double standards. Today's ethnic conflicts in Western European and American societies represent a continuation of past struggles in a new context.

In contrast, China aims to build a national identity that promotes the exchange and integration of various ethnic groups. A significant driving force behind this effort is the ethnic predicaments faced by Europe and the United States, prompting us to rediscover the profound wisdom embedded in China's own history.

In the process of building a Chinese national identity, debates are inevitable. Pan Yue acknowledged this situation and introduced a film depicting the devout pilgrimage of Tibetan herders circumambulating holy mountains. He pointed out that while the film presented China's national highway as part of the pilgrimage route, it focused on "one single aspect" and failed to mention that the national highways was built under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. His observations are insightful, encouraging Chinese writers to avoid one-sided depictions in their work rather than mandating changes to their content. This indicates that contemporary Chinese discourse on cultural policies is becoming more professional and inclusive. Moreover, his remarks invite the world to recognize how China, having established a material foundation through reform and opening up, possesses the inclusiveness necessary for its people to practice their religions.

If some in the West interpret the construction of Chinese national highways—an inclusive act—and the invitation to acknowledge China's inclusiveness as part of a "single nation/ethnicity" project, they are merely projecting their own views onto others. This misinterpretation of "Chinese nation" as a "single nation/ethnicity" through a Western lens reflects their entrapment in the myths of European nationalism.

The author is Zhang Xiang, a professor of School of Liberal Arts in Minzu University of China.

Liu Xian /Editor    Lei Jing /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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