Western religious expansion

Western learning, or Western Studies, made its way into China alongside European colonial enterprises, with religious figures being the vanguard of this dissemination. Jesuit missionaries who arrived in China during the late Ming Dynasty pioneered what came to be known as the "Western Learning Spreading Eastward."

Chinese scholar Fan Longzhi observed: in the tenth year of the Wanli reign (1582), the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci journeyed 90,000 li across the seas to reach Xiangshan'ao in Guangdong, marking the inception of an era where Chinese civilization encountered, clashed with, and amalgamated with a wholly alien culture. Similarly, scholar Huang Dejian, in his work The Western Learning Spreading Eastward during the Ming and Qing Dynasties and Chinese Society, highlighted that the Jesuit missionaries played a unique role in fostering Sino-Western cultural exchanges, unmatched by other religious orders, and that their efforts were exemplified by their successful outreach to the hermetically sealed gates of China, initiating a profound cultural dialogue. Huang's book delineates the period from 1582, when Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci arrived in Zhaoqing, Guangdong, to 1773, the year of the Jesuit order's dissolution, providing a systematic account of the introduction of Western learning to China during the late Ming Dynasty.

Why Did Missionaries Come to China?

What motivated missionaries to undertake the arduous journey to China?

European missionaries arrived in China after the initial incursions by colonizers had already made an impact. For instance, the Portuguese commenced their activities along China's southeastern coast around 1511, following their occupation of Malacca. Yet, it wasn't until August 1552 that Francis Xavier, one of the early missionaries, landed on a small island off Guangdong's coast. To understand the motivations behind these missionaries' formidable voyages, we must consider the influence of the 16th-century European Reformation.

The European Reformation of the 16th century was a transformative upheaval driven by the rise of nationalism, the evolution of capitalist production relations, and the intellectual currents of the Renaissance. This period not only accelerated European capitalism but also intensified the connection between ecclesiastical authority and secular power. As a result, European colonial expansion became inextricably linked with religious endeavors.

On one hand, the spread of religion was intricately tied to colonial enterprises. Huang Dejian noted that, following Martin Luther's Reformation, the Roman Church sought to align itself with the expanding forces of Western colonialism by dispatching missionaries to establish new dioceses, thereby reinforcing the Catholic Church's influence in Europe. The mission of these religious orders in China was fundamentally aimed at "converting the people of the ancient world to Christianity."

Conversely, colonial expansion often leveraged religious zeal to achieve its aims. Thus, overseas missions and colonization were intrinsically connected, with early missionaries frequently serving dual roles. In 1540, Francis Xavier was dispatched to China by the Roman Church, the Jesuits, and the King of Portugal, bearing both the titles of Papal Legate and Royal Representative. Religious organizations were also deeply involved in colonial strategies. For example, in 1583, Bishop Sánchez of Manila advocated for "deploying substantial military forces into China, not only to establish control but also to safeguard and promote missionary activities." Bishop Sánchez, a fervent colonialist, embodied this militant approach.

An "Adaptive Missionary Strategy"

What explains the "adaptive missionary strategy" employed by Western missionaries such as Matteo Ricci?

Initially, European colonization in the East, particularly in Southeast Asia, mirrored the aggressive tactics used in the Americas. However, when confronted with the formidable might of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)—despite its decline—the Europeans had to adjust their approach. This led to a strategy in the late Ming period that combined military aggression, bribery, and intellectual infiltration. European warships patrolled the South China Sea, waiting for an opportune moment to penetrate China. Similarly, the adoption of an adaptive missionary strategy emerged as a response to the failures of earlier attempts at armed evangelism, reflecting a pragmatic consensus among discerning missionaries who had come to understand the complex realities of China.

Francis Xavier was an early proponent of this adaptive approach. While initially employing coercive methods to propagate Christianity in Southeast Asia, his tactics evolved following his arrival in Japan in 1549 and his subsequent insights into Chinese culture. According to him, China was vast, its people lived in peace and prosperity, and there was no indication of conflict. According to reports from Portuguese travelers, China was a land of justice, where governance was rooted in righteousness. This reputation for justice was unmatched by any Christian territory. And from his observations in Japan, the Chinese were exceptionally intelligent, surpassing the Japanese in wisdom; they were profound thinkers who placed great value on scholarship.

Similarly, missionaries such as Alessandro Valignano and Michele Ruggieri championed a strategy of peaceful evangelism. Their deep appreciation for China's rich civilization, well-structured governance, and formidable military strength led them to conclude that the methods employed in other countries were inappropriate for entering China to preach.

Matteo Ricci suggested that a wise and cultivated people, dedicated to the arts, could be persuaded to welcome distinguished foreigners renowned for their knowledge and virtue, particularly if these guests were proficient in the Chinese language and script. Drawing on the experiences of missionaries like Michele Ruggieri, Ricci developed a strategy of intellectual evangelism, advocating for the adaptation of Western culture to align with Chinese traditions and seeking to harmonize Christian doctrine with Confucian teachings. This approach led to the adaptive missionary route.

It is crucial to note that the adaptive missionary route and the strategy of intellectual evangelism were not merely designed for the dissemination of Western knowledge. Ricci explicitly stated that their foremost goal, by any means necessary, was to gain the favor of the Chinese emperor and secure permission to preach their faith freely so as to convert hundreds of thousands or even millions of people.

Evidently, there is no basis to attribute the phenomenon of "Western Learning Spreading Eastward" to a mutual cultural allure between Europe and Asia, nor should it be ascribed to the lofty virtues or cosmopolitan spirit of European culture. The adaptive missionary route pursued by the Jesuits does not alter the fact that this era of Western Learning Spreading Eastward was fundamentally rooted in aggression and colonialism.

Nevertheless, it is essential to recognize that Jesuit missionaries such as Francis Xavier, Alessandro Valignano, Michele Ruggieri, and Matteo Ricci distinguished themselves from other missionaries. They not only possessed superior scientific and cultural knowledge and a humanistic spirit but also upheld values that set them apart from typical colonizers.

The Inevitable Path of China's Social Development

The dissemination of Western learning to the East during the late Ming Dynasty and the subsequent Opium Wars were direct offshoots of European colonial expansion. Nevertheless, the exchanges between China and Europe in the late Ming period were marked by relatively peaceful interactions and a more equitable footing, making this phase of Western Learning Spreading Eastward a notable exception in the history of European colonialism. Why did European armed colonization halt at China's southeastern coast, adopting a distinctly different strategy compared to the Americas, Africa, and Southeast Asia? An examination of China's status during the late Ming Dynasty provides a plausible explanation.

When reflecting on China from the mid-Ming period onward, the focus often falls on frequent peasant revolts and the weakening of the feudal dynasty. However, it is important to remember that, prior to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, China was one of the world's foremost powers. Despite its declining influence, the Ming Dynasty retained substantial economic strength, comprehensive national power, and formidable military capabilities, all of which were significant on the global stage. In fields such as economics, culture, and technology, China was a leader and was undergoing profound social transformation. These elements laid the groundwork for equitable economic and cultural exchanges between East and West.

Foremost among these was the robust defense capability of the late Ming Dynasty, which was pivotal in maintaining these exchanges on equal terms.

European colonial expansion was initially characterized by brutal conquests, including the massacre of Native Americans, the enslavement of Aboriginal Australians, the African slave trade, and the militaristic occupation of Southeast Asia. Early European colonizers who reached the Chinese coast also sought to use military force as their primary means of expansion but shifted tactics following their setbacks. Similarly, missionaries adopted an adaptive missionary route only after acknowledging the advanced civilization and formidable power of the Ming Dynasty.

Shen Dingping offered his analysis: Prior to Europe's Industrial Revolution and its significant advancements, China's level of economic development slightly surpassed that of Europe. This formidable national power enabled the Ming and Qing dynasties (1616-1911) to successfully repel the incursions and invasions by Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch colonizers along China's southeastern coast. It also led Jesuit missionaries to assert that they came to China to promote peace, not to engage in war or cause chaos. These conditions fostered Sino-Western cultural exchanges on a more equal footing.

Secondly, the advanced economy and culture of the late Ming dynasty laid the foundation for equitable exchange.

As European colonizers embarked on their global conquests, they perceived themselves as the pinnacle of civilization, regarding peoples beyond Europe's borders as mere barbarians. However, upon encountering the East, they were confronted with civilizations that far surpassed their own, sparking a heightened interest in commercial exchanges with China. This realization was also documented by early missionaries, and numerous European scholars have since explored this topic extensively.

Economically, China's commodity economy during the late Ming Dynasty was on par with that of Europe. Trade relations of the period were marked by a pronounced trade surplus in China's favor, even before the onset of the Opium War. The imbalance in trade, heavily skewed in favor of China, highlights the advanced state of its economy relative to that of Europe.

In the realms of science and technology, China's advancements were equally impressive. French scholar Jacques Gernet observed: Around 1600, Europe's worldview and scientific knowledge remained largely medieval. Matteo Ricci, with the aid of Chinese scholars, endeavored to introduce astronomy, geometry, ancient Greek-Roman physics, and the natural sciences of Aristotle and Ptolemy to China. Yet, the main innovations of Ricci's time were confined to knowledge about the Earth, clocks, and telescopes. When considering historical and humanistic perspectives, Ricci and his Jesuit successors lagged behind Chinese intellectual achievements in their conceptual frameworks.

This context underscores why the Jesuits' contributions to Sino-European cultural exchanges have been widely celebrated in Europe. German scholar Adolf Reichwein regarded them as remarkable intermediaries between China's ancient enlightenment movement and Europe's 18th-century Enlightenment. British scholar Joseph Needham further noted that in the annals of cultural exchange, nothing could be compared to the group of 17th-century Jesuit missionaries who entered China due to their impact on the mutual influence between Chinese and Western cultures.

Thirdly, the dynamic social trends in late Ming China fostered essential conditions for equal exchange.

At the dawn of the Western Learning Spreading Eastward, Chinese society was undergoing profound transformation. What implications did this transformative era have for Europeans? French scholar Jacques Gernet encapsulated the defining characteristics of late Ming China with the following observations:

"The rapid expansion of a commercial economy underpinned by silver ingots, paralleling the remarkable growth of maritime trade across East Asia, from Japan to Siam and the Philippines."

"Significant advancements in production techniques across various sectors, including agriculture, textiles, ceramics, and printing."

"Societal shifts and urban development, marked by the rise of a petty bourgeoisie comprising small merchants, affluent shopkeepers from Shanxi, and traders from Xin'an."

"The emergence of short stories like sanyan and erpai, and the development of long novels such as Journey to the West (circa 1570) and The Plum in the Golden Vase (circa 1619), reflecting a vibrant new literary and dramatic vitality."

"An increasing number of works showcasing technical and scientific advancements…"

Gernet described the late Ming era, particularly during Emperor Wanli's reign, as one of the most distinctive periods in Chinese history, characterizing it as a second revival after the great revival of the Song Dynasty—an era marked by cultural fervor, innovation, intellectual curiosity, and freedom.

This characterization is a balanced reflection. The rise of practical learning in the late Ming period, along with the burgeoning commodity economy and advancements in science and technology, cultivated a relatively enlightened and open cultural climate. Without such an environment, the diplomatic overtures of European nations, the missionaries' adaptive strategies, and their scientific methodologies would not have been acknowledged by the formidable feudal dynasty of the time, nor would they have catalyzed the Western Learning Spreading Eastward that we recognize today.

The authors are Luo Benqi and Fang Guogen, School of Marxism, Anqing Normal University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Li Minjie /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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