Historically, Xinjiang was also known as the Western Regions. This area has been a melting pot for numerous ethnic groups, including the people of Sai, of Yuezhi, of Wusun, of Qiuci (roughly located in today's Baicheng and Kuqa of Aksu Prefecture), of Khotan (Yutian), of Shule (roughly located in today's Kashi), the Qiang people, the Xiongnu (Huns), and the Han during the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BC–AD 220); the Xianbei, Rouran, Gaoche(Qangqil), and Tuguhun during the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern dynasties (220–420); the Tujue, Ouigour (Huihe), and Tubo peoples throughout the Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907); and the Khitans, Mongols, and Tangut people in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368).

More recently, the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911) witnessed further migrations and cultural adaption, with the Kazakhs, Kirgiz, Manchu, Hui, and Xibe peoples all contributing to the formation of a diverse yet unified ethnic landscape.

Sustained loyalty to and identification with the central dynasties

The Ouigour, later renamed as Uighur (Huihu), constituted the main body of the ancestors of today's Uygur people during the Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907). In the mid-9th century, following the decline of the Uighur Khanate, the Uighur people migrated westward and merged with the Han people in the Turpan Basin, as well as with other ancient ethnic groups including the Yanqi people, Qiuci people, Khotan people, and Shule people in the Tarim Basin, thus forming the principal part of modern Uygur. Later, especially in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the integration of a substantial number of Mongols and Khitans also played a crucial role in shaping the modern Uygur ethnic group.

From the perspective of physical anthropology, "one of the primary ancestors of the Uygur people, the Ouigour, were distinct from the indigenous inhabitants of the Tarim Basin." Although the prolonged amalgamation of various ethnic groups and races has given the contemporary Uygur people their pronounced hybrid features, their aesthetic tastes typical of the Chinese culture in the east has persisted into the modern era. In the Twelve Muqams, a grand musical suite of the Uygur people that combines singing, dancing, and music, there are numerous lyrics that extol the eastern features of dark eyes and black hair.

Historically, the national, collective and individual identities of the peoples in this area have differed greatly from the "national consciousness" in the modern Western sense. In the era of feudal dynasties, the Chinese commonly acknowledged that "all land under the sky belongs to the emperor, and all who dwell upon it are his subjects." Following such an idea, the emperor was regarded as the patriarch, holding supreme power, with all others being his subjects. This basic context established that the ancient inhabitants of Xinjiang were neither nations in Western nationalistic sense, nor believer groups in the sense of theocracy.

Throughout history, people of various ethnic groups in Xinjiang have always maintained a sustained identification with the central dynasties. For instance, King Yuchi Sheng of the Khotan abdicated in favor of his brother Yuchi Yao so that he could personally lead 5,000 Khotan troops to assist the Tang dynasty in quelling the An Lushan Rebellion. The rulers of the Karakhanid Khanate referred to themselves as the "Khans of China," the "Kings of the East and China," or the "Kings of the East and Qin." What's more, in the famous Uygur historical text, the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, which was compiled in the 11th century in the Song dynasty, China was divided into three parts: the Upper Qin (the Northern Song dynasty), the Central Qin (the Liao dynasty), and the Lower Qin (local kingdoms around Kashgar) (Qin was the name used by the nomadic tribes of the north and the west to refer to China at that time). These historical facts reflect the identification of the peoples in Xinjiang with peoples in other parts of China at that time.

Even in the late Qing dynasty, the identity and the way of thinking of the peoples in Xinjiang were still fundamentally distinct from Western nationalism, as evidenced in the Tarikh-i Ḥamidi written by the Uygur scholar Mullah Musa Sayrami (1836–1917). For example, the author habitually refers to the ethnic minorities in Xinjiang by geographical names, such as "the people of the Seven Cities," "the Kashi people," "the Hetian people" in Southern Xinjiang. Therefore, it is not appropriate to apply the modern Western nationalist framework to interpret the ethnic identities in ancient Xinjiang, as it does not correspond to the historical facts of the region.

Xinjiang culture possesses distinct characteristics of Chinese culture

Located at the crossroads of the Eurasian continent, Xinjiang holds a significant place where Eastern and Western civilizations have collided and integrated. Over a long period of historical interaction, the languages, religions, and even modes of production of the various ethnic groups in Xinjiang have continuously evolved, absorbing and drawing on foreign cultures. However, the ethnic cultures of the ethnic groups are all components of the Chinese civilization.

The Uygur classic Kutadgu Bilig completed in 1069 is said to be "adorned with the maxims of sages from the regions once ruled by the Qin state and with the poems of scholars from Maqin." The book contains a large number of ethical proverbs and famous sayings about governance, such as "one should embrace benevolence and protect the people," "excellent character is the foundation of goodness," and "faith and integrity are the basis of dealing with matters and conducting oneself," which reflect its close connection with the Confucian culture.

The development and evolution of foreign religions in ancient Xinjiang is also a process of integration in the Chinese culture. Even for local regimes with relatively profound religious influence, such as the Karakhanid Khanate and the Yer-khen Khanate, the humanistic traits typical of Chinese culture still had a significant impact on the relationship between politics and religion in the region, with the political authority dominating the religious authority. The power of these local regimes always remained in the hands of secular Chinese khans rather than the privileged religious groups. Although there were times in history when religion was spread by force, such as during the feudal rule of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, generally speaking, the characteristics of Chinese culture—such as continuity, unity, inclusiveness, and equality—were always present within the cultures of various ethnic groups.

For example, like the Han people in the Central Plains, the various ethnic groups in Xinjiang have followed a fine tradition of Great Unity in their collective resistance against foreign invaders, which embodies the ideology of a unified nation. In the Qing dynasty, Eein Hoja of Turpan actively participated in the Qing court's campaigns to suppress the Dzungar rebellion as well as the uprisings led by the Khojas. He was then praised by Emperor Qianlong as "steadfast in loyalty, unwavering like a rock."

In 1865, when Yakub Beg invaded Xinjiang, the Kirgiz people rose up in revolt in Yangi-chahr, fighting back against the invasion. In 1866, Yakub Beg, invaded Khotan (present-day Hetian) in the name of religion, where the local army and civilians resisted fiercely. Over 50,000 Khotan soldiers were massacred by Yakub Beg's forces. Later, when Zuo Zongtang of the Qing dynasty recaptured Xinjiang, people of all ethnic groups in Xinjiang lined the streets to welcome the Qing army. When the Qing forces reached Aksu, "tens of thousands of the local Uygur people in the city were awaiting the arrival of the imperial troops."

After recapturing Xinjiang, Zuo Zongtang proposed that the Qing government establish a province in Xinjiang and restructure the local administrative divisions, arguing that "due to Xinjiang's remote location and external threats, the newly reclaimed land should be firmly secured." On November 17, 1884, the Qing government adopted Zuo Zongtang's suggestion and established this region as a province, naming it "Xinjiang," meaning "Newly Reclaimed Territory."

The evolution of the name from "the Western Regions" to "Xinjiang" encapsulates the continued and intensified jurisdiction of the central dynasties over the region of Xinjiang. In the midst of the Chinese People's War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, the patriotic Uygur poet Le Mutharifu expressed his devotion in his poem China with the lines: "China! Behold, we traverse your vast expanse, safeguarding you with every passing moment, fighting for your future! We aspire to build a singular, rejuvenated, and independent China upon the world stage!"

The author is Si Lü, professor at School of Education Sciences, Kashi University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Zhang Rong /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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