Shimao-type: A sub-type of the Laohushan Culture

In archaeology, pottery often serves as the most reliable indicator of the cultural attributes of human material remains. It is ubiquitous, fragile, sensitive to change, and often reflects cultural customs. Two types of cooking vessels, the "double-handled cauldron (鬲 pronounced as li)" and the "narrow-mouthed steamer (甗 pronounced as yan)," typify the pottery at the Shimao site.

The li cauldron is one of the most characteristically Chinese ceramic cooking vessels, invented in the region spanning from central Shanxi to central and southern Inner Mongolia. It has three large hollow legs in which food is placed to ensure maximum heat exposure during cooking. This efficient, energy-saving design is ideal for the semi-arid agricultural communities of northern China. The yan steamer, which originated in the lower Yangtze River region, evolved in the northern areas from having three solid legs to three hollow ones, making it capable of withstanding both boiling and steaming, thus offering greater convenience and efficiency.

We once collectively named these agricultural-based Longshan remains in the narrowly defined "northern region" as the Laohushan Culture. We can divide the Laohushan Culture into several local types, or "subcultures," which exhibit many regional differences. The Shimao in the northern Shaanxi region represents relics that possess certain distinctive features, such as the earliest and most developed appearance of three-legged urns, which can be named the Shimao-type of the Laohushan Culture.

The excavators divided the main remains of Shimao site into two phases: early and late. In the early phase, tripod li cauldrons with wide flanks were popular, while in the late phase they were replaced by typical tripod cauldrons with pointed flanks. New pottery such as three-legged urns and wine vessels (盉 pronounced as he) appeared. The absolute dates of these phases are approximately 2300–2100 BC and 2100–1800 BC respectively, roughly corresponding to the late phase of the Early Period and the Late Period of the Laohushan Culture as we have divided it.

Originating from the Central Plains

The Laohushan Culture can be traced back to the broadly defined Yangshao Culture of the Central Plains. Circa 4500 BC, the hydrothermal condition in the northern loess hills were much more favorable than today, with the terrain probably flatter and more conducive to dry farming. The bearers of the Hougang subtype of the Yangshao Culture migrated northwest from the east of the Taihang Mountains, while those of the Banpo subtype moved northeast from the Guanzhong region (the central region of Shaanxi Province). These two groups arrived sequentially in the northern region, where they clashed and merged, giving rise to a distinctive Yangshao Culture that flourished for approximately 2,000 years.

Around 2500 BC, during the Longshan period, ceramic wine warmer (斝pronounced as jia) moved from southern Shanxi to the northern region, and evolved into the li cauldron, while ceramic yan steamer spread from the Phase II of Hougang Culture in the Hebei Plain. This diffusion led to the emergence of the Laohushan Culture. It is clear that the Laohushan Culture, including the Shimao, had its origins in the Central Plains and was profoundly influenced by Central Plains traditions during its development. However, it also developed distinctive characteristics that were uniquely adapted to the northern region's environment.

In addition, internal cultural integration within the northern region played a crucial role in the formation of the Laohushan Culture. For instance, the white ash-faced kiln cave-style architecture spread from northern Shaanxi and central Shanxi to central and southern Inner Mongolia, northern Shanxi, and northwestern Hebei. Similarly, the stone city construction spread from Ordos (now in Inner Mongolia) and northern Shaanxi to central and northern Shanxi, the Haidai region (now in Shandong Province), and northwestern Hebei.

The cultural origins of Shimao's jade artifacts and animal face carvings are deeply rooted in the Central Plains, with earlier influences from the eastern regions. Numerous jade items, including knives, axes, bi-discs, and rings, have been unearthed at Shimao and nearby sites such as Shenmu Xinhua (located in Xinhua Village, Dabao Town, Shenmu County). These jade artifacts are not from northern Shaanxi but closely resemble those from the Taosi Culture of southern Shanxi (c. 2300–1600 BC), indicating that they likely originated from this earlier culture. The Taosi Culture's influence at the Yan'an Lushanmao site in northern Shaanxi, where similar pottery and jade artifacts are present, further suggests the transmission of Shimao's jade artifacts through northern Shaanxi.

Moreover, the Dawenkou and Liangzhu cultures of the eastern regions influenced the jade artifacts of the Taosi Culture, although they did not originate from the Central Plains. In the later Shimao period, numerous jade ceremonial scepters (牙璋 pronounced as yazhang) appear, which are absent in the Taosi Culture and may have originated from the Haidai Longshan Culture. The practice of embedding jade artifacts in the walls of Shimao suggests a shift in their use to offerings to ancestral spirits, a practice not found in the Taosi, Dawenkou, or Liangzhu cultures. This shift in the function of jade artifacts highlights a significant cultural evolution, but it does not diminish the fact that Shimao's jade traditions originated in the Central Plains and eastern regions.

The animal face carvings on stone in Shimao, while distinctive in their bold and dynamic style, are fundamentally similar to the jade carving patterns of the Xiaojiawuji Culture in the Jianghan region in Hubei Province. These patterns are mainly from the Haidai Longshan Culture, with origins dating back to the Liangzhu Culture.

Facing Eurasia

Certain stone carvings of human faces, bronze artifacts, and domesticated animals such as sheep and cattle in Shimao reveal links to the Eurasian steppe. The human face sculptures in Shimao are similar to those of the Okunev, Karakol, and Chemurchek Cultures throughout the Altai region. Similar heart-shaped or teardrop-shaped faces are common in the rock art throughout the Altai Mountains, Tianshan Mountains, Helan Mountains, and Yin Mountains. This suggests that Shimao and its northern surroundings may have had deep cultural connections with the Eurasian steppe during this period.

Some scholars suggest that these water-drop-shaped human face image may originate from the earlier Xinglongwa-Hongshan Cultures of northeastern China. A ring-headed knife model from the late Shimao period, dated around 1800BC, hada Seima-Turbino-style "X" pattern on the hilt position. Jessica Rawson, a renowned British archaeologist, believes that it is specifically related to the bronze knives of the Elunino Culture in the Altai region.

Moreover, numerous bones of domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle were discovered in the late Laohushan Culture relics at Shimao. These animals may originate from the Gansu-Qinghai and Altai regions, underscoring burgeoning cultural exchanges between the pastoral culture of the Eurasian steppe and the agricultural practices of northern China. This interaction likely led to the emergence of a semi-agricultural, semi-pastoral lifestyle, paving the way for the northern region to evolve into a pastoral culture after the late Shang period (1600–1046 BC).

State civilization and the Northern Model

Covering an area of over 4 million square meters, the then Shimao ancient city, stands as a testament to a highly advanced social organization and complex social structure. Its impressive imperial platform, colossal city gates, intricate city wall construction, and the craftsmanship evident in its jade, stone carvings, and bronze artifacts all underscore a sophisticated level of social organization and labor division.

At the heart of this ancient metropolis is the imperial platform, which has over 60 stone carvings depicting symbols, human faces, animals, faces of god, and divine beasts. The imposing circular stone pillar, adorned with a divine face, evokes an aura of reverence and mystery. The discovery of more than 20 bone jaw harps, likely used in rituals honoring ancestors and deities, further emphasizes the sacred nature of the platform. Additionally, the presence of over 20 large pottery eagles and divination bones underscores the profound religious significance of the imperial platform.

Shimao was not only a religious and political epicenter of the Shimao-type culture in northern Shaanxi, but it may also have influenced over other facets of the Laohushan Culture, reflecting the early stages of state formation or primitive civilization. Nonetheless, Shimao's dominance was primarily regional, without extending to larger areas of early China.

In assessing the evolution of states or civilizations in China, the distinguished archaeologist Su Bingqi proposed a three-stage model: "Ancient States-Regional States-Dynastic states." Yan Wenming referred to it as "Ancient States-Kingdoms-Dynastic states," while Professor Wang Zhizhong adapted it to "States-Kingdoms-Dynastic states."

The term "state civilization" delineates the period from the late Neolithic to the formative stages of statehood, characterized by the coexistence of various small kingdoms and tribal alliances within China. During this period, these nascent states each cultivated distinctive cultures, religious practices, and political systems. The rise of city-states, coupled with advances in bronze technology, signaled increased productivity and societal complexity. Interactions among these states included trade, cultural exchange, warfare, and annexation, fostering the technological diffusion and cultural fusion that would eventually underpin the unification of larger states. Shimao, an ancient city, epitomizes this phase of state civilization.

Shimao, alongside the Liangzhu Culture (3300–2300 BC) and the Longshan Culture (2500–1500 BC) of the eastern regions, entered the state civilization stage, although notable divergences remained. Shimao's burial practices, characterized by relatively few grave goods, contrast sharply with the richly decorated tombs of the Liangzhu and Longshan cultures. Despite the presence of large burial chambers and human sacrifices at Shimao, the limited jade artifacts and painted pottery-likely influenced by the Taosi Culture—reflect a social emphasis on nobility over material wealth. Conversely, the elaborate burial sets and numerous jade and pottery items in the eastern tombs indicate both wealth and status. In addition, the grim discovery of pits containing the severed heads of young women at Shimao reveals a brutal aspect of warfare and prisoner treatment.

Around 3500 BC, with the onset of the Copper Age in the northern regions and the Longshan period of the Laohushan culture, there was a notable surge in stone city construction, frequent warfare, and the emergence of patriarchal clans. These developments mirrored social transformations observed in the eastern regions, although wealth disparity and social stratification were less pronounced. Stones cities in the north often served as defensive enclosures rather than symbols of opulence. Previous classifications have labeled this historical trajectory as the "Northern Model" of social development and civilization, setting it apart from the "Eastern Model" and the "Central Plains Model." Recent discoveries in Shimao further illuminate the complex nature of the northern regional cultures.

Heading south to the Central Plains and reshaping civilization

In its early days, the Laohushan culture existed in harmony with neighboring cultures. However, significant changes occurred later, possibly driven by a cold and dry climate event around 2000 BC. This climatic change catalyzed a vigorous southward expansion of the Laohushan culture, dramatically altering the cultural landscape of the Linfen Basin in Shanxi. Previously characterized by the predominance of ceramic wine warmer (斝) and the absence of cauldron (鬲), this cultural phase in the basin saw a sudden influx of double-handled pottery cauldrons. This shift heralded the decline of the Taosi Culture, characterized by the destruction of cities, violent massacres, and widespread desecration of tombs, signaling intense conflict between northern and southwestern Shanxi.

The ancient cities of Shimao and Taosi, both covering three to four million square meters, may have briefly coexisted. Nonetheless, the rise of Shimao and the decline of Taosi were emblematic of a broader trend. The southward movement of the Laohushan culture, including Shimao, disrupted the civilizational trajectory of Taosi in southern Shanxi, paving the way for central and western Henan to emerge as the epicenter of the Central Plain.

Pottery from the Laohushan culture, such as the li, micro-lithic arrowheads, and oracle bones, gradually infiltrated later cultures, including the Phase II of Hougang (Late Neolithic, 2500–2000 BC) and Phase III of Wangwan (1700–1500 BC) cultures. This diffusion facilitated the introduction of elements such as wheat, sheep, and bronze from western regions into the Central Plains, infusing these regions with new vitality and exerting some pressure on existing cultures.

We can see Yu's conquest of the Sanmiao tribe, an example of the expansion of the Phase III of Wangwan culture into southern Henan and the Jianghan region, as a response to northern pressure. This event, led by Yu of the Huaxia tribe against southern tribal alliances, was pivotal in the political unification prior to the establishment of the Xia Dynasty (21st to 16th centuries BC). As a result, the Erlitou culture, which evolved from the Phase III of Wangwan culture, marked the transition to a stage of kingdom civilization.

Thus, the ancient city of Shimao not only represents a critical chapter in the lineage of Chinese civilization, but it also played a pivotal role in steering early China toward kingdoms period and reshaping its early cultural landscape.

The author is Han Jianye, professor at the Department of Archaeology and Museology, School of History, Renmin University of China.

Liu Xian /Editor    Deng Zhiyu /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

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