From the first excavation in 1934 to the remarkable discovery of six sacrificial pits in 2021, the artifacts uncovered at Sanxingdui are truly extraordinary. They're not only vast in number but also incredibly diverse in type, with shapes and designs that are both unique and fascinating. These discoveries offer a fascinating window into the beliefs, aesthetics, and creativity of the ancient Shu people. To gain deeper insights into the ancient Shu civilization at Sanxingdui, DeepChina interviewed Huo Wei, a professor at Sichuan University.

DeepChina: The Sanxingdui Ruins is dubbed as one of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. But what exactly has been unearthed at this remarkable site? Additionally, how did the Sanxingdui Ruins, Sanxingdui culture, and the ancient city of Sanxingdui come to be discovered and named over time?

Huo Wei: Since the first excavation in 1934, the archaeological exploration of Sanxingdui has lasted nearly a century, making it one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century.

The Sanxingdui Ruins derived its name in an interesting way.

If we open a distribution map of the Sanxingdui Ruins, we can see that its central part is the ancient city of Sanxingdui with a man-made river called the Mamu River. The Mamu River divides the ancient city in two, and within its boundaries lie several elevated platforms. Among these, one of the larger platforms, shaped like a crescent moon, is known as Moon Bay. At that time, three distinct mounds stood in the southern part of the ancient city, complementing the crescent-shaped platform in the north. Imaginative local villagers dubbed this geographical formation "Three Stars Accompanying the Moon." Later, archaeological evidence confirmed that these "stars" were, in fact, remnants of ancient cities. This is how the site came to be known as Sanxingdui (Three-star Mounds).

A city is one of the important symbols of human civilization.  In the south of the ancient Sanxingdui City, archaeologists unearthed a wealth of artifacts from the first and second sacrificial pits, including ivories, bronze objects, and jade items. What is particularly astonishing is the discovery of unprecedented bronze artifacts, such as towering sacred trees, clusters of bronze heads and intricate bronze masks. Some bronze masks are adorned with gold foil, and scepters have been discovered among the gold ornaments. These findings completely reshape our understanding of the traditional Chinese Bronze Age. In this sense, Sanxingdui, as an ancient urban site representing the culture in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, truly lives up to its reputation as one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century.

DeepChina: What's the origin of Sanxingdui Culture? What's its relationship with Jinsha Culture? How does the discovery and research of Sanxingdui promote the study of ancient Shu civilization?

Huo Wei: References to "Shu" are documented on oracle bone inscriptions. In the past, there were different views on the geographical location of "Shu." Many scholars, based on the bronze artifacts unearthed in Sichuan, have argued that "Shu" refers to the ancient civilization in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.

Based on current evidence, the cultural composition of the region displays remarkable diversity, including influences from the Central Plains, the Gansu-Qinghai-Sichuan areas in northwest China, and Yunnan.

The decorative bronze plate inlaid with turquoise unearthed in Sanxingdui is similar to those discovered in the Erlitou Site in Luoyang, Henan Province. The Erlitou Site, dating back to 3,500 to 3,800 years ago, is associated with the late Xia or early Shang dynasties of ancient China. Chinese archaeologists have identified Erlitou as the remains of the capital city during the middle and late Xia Dynasty. Although there are subtle differences, the overall shape and craftsmanship are basically the same. The pottery he (wine vessel, "盉" in Chinese) is nearly identical to those found in the Erlitou Site. The sacrificial pits at Sanxingdui are dated to the late Yin Ruins period (14th–11th BC) in Central Plains. Many of the bronze sacrificial ritual vessels unearthed at Sanxingdui belong to the same cultural system as those discovered in Central Plains and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, such as the bronze vessels unearthed in Anhui.

After its heyday, the center of Sanxingdui may have shifted to the Chengdu Plain. The Jinsha Ruins are likely to represent a continuation of the Sanxingdui culture. A golden belt discovered at Jinsha has patterns strikingly similar to those on the golden scepter unearthed at Sanxingdui, including motifs of birds, fish, arrows and bronze head sculptures. Therefore, the Sanxingdui culture first emerged in the Neolithic period, established contact with the Central Plains by the early Bronze Age, and incorporated a large number of cultural elements from the Central Plains during the Shang Dynasty (1600—1046 BC). After its decline, its cultural legacy continued at the Jinsha Ruins. In the late Jinsha period, during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (770–221 BC), a substantial influx of cultural elements from the Central Plains, particularly those from the northern Qin state, became evident.

DeepChina: Many unique artifacts, including the bronze masks, bronze sacred trees, jade items and gold artifacts have been unearthed at the Sanxingdui ruins. Why is its cultural landscape so rich and strange?

Huo Wei: The artifacts found at Sanxingdui embody a highly distinctive aspect of ancient Chinese culture—the practice of sacrificial rituals dedicated to deities.

Most of the artifacts unearthed at Sanxingdui are closely associated with deities and sacrificial practices. The bronze ritual vessels were specifically used for offerings, and the altar ruins vividly reconstruct the sacrificial ceremonies. This emphasis on ritual and worship represents a defining feature of Chinese civilization in the Bronze Age, a feature that is notably less prominent in other Bronze Age cultures worldwide.

The great affairs of an ancient state were sacrifice and war. The people of the Bronze Age believed that sacrifice facilitated communication between humans and deities, as well as between heaven and earth. The sacrificial artifacts at Sanxingdui are closely linked to the worship of heaven and ancestors, offering valuable insights into the distinctive characteristics and forms of Chinese civilization. These findings also enhance our understanding of the "unity in diversity" that defines Chinese civilization.

DeepChina: Whether in the early Stone Age, the heyday of the Bronze Age, or the Sanxingdui culture evident in Jinsha, it appears that Sanxingdui has consistently demonstrated active interactions with surrounding cultures across various historical periods.

What does this reflect about the cultural characteristics of this particular region of Ba-Shu (namely, two ancient cities that form part of a broader region encompassing Sichuan)?

Huo Wei: The history of civilization is a long and intricate process of development. To understand the role of each regional culture in shaping Chinese civilization—marked by unity in diversity, we must carefully analyze its defining characteristics.

The Sanxingdui heritage left us in awe, as we had not anticipated the discovery of such a unique and unprecedented collection of artifacts in the remote upper reaches of the Yangtze River, far from the Central Plains. This discovery once again underscores the breadth and depth of Chinese civilization. Indeed, who knows how many more archaeological wonders await us on this vast land!

Sanxingdui was not "water without a source or a tree without roots" from the outset. In the early Stone Age, the Ba-Shu region was influenced by the northwestern Majiayao Culture, named after its initial discovery in Majiayao village, Lintao county, Gansu province, in 1923. This influence is evident in practices such as the use of painted pottery and the cultivation of millet. While millet is no longer grown in Sichuan today, archaeological evidence reveals that it was a staple crop for ancient inhabitants of the region, who later transitioned to rice cultivation.

Similar bronze ornaments from the Bronze Age have been discovered at both Erlitou site and Sanxingdui ruins. However, how the Erlitou Culture was transmitted to the Chengdu Plain remains uncertain up to now. During the Shang Dynasty, evidence for cultural transmission becomes more pronounced, with two distinct routes emerging. The first route traverses the Qinling Mountains from the north or enters the Chengdu Plain via the Bailong River Valley. This route eventually became the official road connecting Sichuan to the Central Plains after centuries of development. The second route represents the spread of Shang culture into Sichuan, primarily passing through Hubei in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

Recently, Professor Cui Jianfeng of Peking University analyzed the alloy composition of bronze artifacts unearthed at Sanxingdui. His research revealed the presence of highly radioactive lead, known as "high radiation lead," in these bronze objects. High radiation lead is not ordinary lead and is exceptionally rare. Current evidence suggests that the technique for producing this material was first developed by people of Shang Dynasty. It then spread to regions such as Shaanxi, Hubei, and Hunan, eventually reaching the Ba-Shu region. This is a very important achievement in the field of technological archaeology.

Therefore, the bronze culture of Sanxingdui was inherently an open system from its inception. It served as a cultural center in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Across China, numerous regional cultural centers existed, each continuously integrating themselves with the cultural core of the Central Plains. This dynamic interaction contributed new elements, fostering the development of a diverse yet unified Chinese civilization.

DeepChina: In recent years, there has been a resurgence of speculations about Shanxingdui, with some claiming it as a product of "alien civilization." Why do such speculations arise? How can we approach the Sanxingdui Bronze Culture in a scientific way?

Huo Wei: The claim of "alien civilization" is baseless. The Sanxingdui Ruins have a well-documented excavation site, and their cultural accumulation reveals a clear developmental sequence. The sequence spans from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, through the abandonment of the ancient Sanxingdui city, to the Qin-Han dynasties (221 BC–AD 220) and Song-Yuan dynasties (960–1368). Therefore, Sanxingdui is unequivocally a cultural heritage of the ancient Shu people.

In our understanding of Sanxingdui culture, there are three important dimensions.

The first dimension involves the accurate understanding of ancient Shu culture. We should recognize that it is an orderly and continuous cultural sequence, evolving from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.

The second dimension involves the understanding of the relationship between Sanxingdui culture and the Central Plains culture of Shang dynasty, as evidenced by archaeology and literature. The Sanxingdui bronzes, pottery such as the vessel he, and the jade products such as zhang (jade blades,"璋" in Chinese), bi (disk-shaped jade ,"璧" in Chinese) and cong (tube-shaped jade ,"琮"in Chinese), are essentially consistent in usage as their counterparts in the Central Plains. These artifacts primarily served the function of worshipping deities and ancestors.

The third important dimension is to recognize that Sanxingdui culture was influenced by the neighboring cultures. Additionally, it is plausible that distant cultures, such as those of South Asia, Central Asia, and even farther regions like West Asia, may have also exerted an influence. The evidence is not yet sufficient, but this perspective should be retained for further exploration. The claim that Sanxingdui is part of an alien civilization lacks scientific basis.

DeepChina: What do you think is the likelihood or evidence of Sanxingdui culture's role in early exchanges between Chinese and Western civilizations?

Huo Wei: It is well possible that there was communication between Sanxingdui and surrounding cultures, as well as some distant cultures.

Silk, a representative symbol of Chinese civilization, was discovered in the Sanxingdui ruins. During the Sanxingdui period, silk was traded with foreign countries. And through these exchanges, Sanxingdui likely absorbed outside cultural influences. Further evidence is required to substantiate these claims.

Civilizations at similar cultural levels, in comparable environments, and at analogous stages of social development, often independently produce certain shared cultural phenomena. For example, the "Sacred Tree" was revered as the tree of the sun, the tree of the universe, and the tree of life across various civilizations worldwide.

In fact, no artifacts identical to those found in Sanxingdui have been discovered outside the region. If they were indeed transmitted from outside regions, their exact origins and mechanisms of transmission remain unclear. More archaeological evidence and research are needed to support these claims.

The interviewee is Huo Wei, professor at Sichuan University.

Liu Xian /Editor    Lei Jing, Li Minjie /Translator

Yang Xinhua /Chief Editor    Liu Xian /Coordination Editor

Liu Li /Reviewer

Zhang Weiwei /Copyeditor    Tan Yujie /Image Editor

The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.