Wolkodoff also found there was virtually no difference in calories burned between carrying (721) and using a pushcart (718) - a surprising result to many, who figured it would take more work to push the cart.

"Normally, calories are measured on how much weight you had to move up a hill," he says. "But in this case, it shows that even pushing the cart, you're more efficient at moving that way than if the bag is over your shoulder."

Not surprisingly, walking the course with a caddie carrying the clubs burned fewer calories (613) and playing while riding in a cart burned even fewer (411).

The fact that the energy consumed while carrying and pushing is nearly identical could bolster the idea that players using pushcarts get no competitive advantage over those who carry. The American Junior Golf Association recently decided to allow non-motorized carts in tournament play, in part to decrease back stress on young players.

Players in Wolkodoff's tests scored best when using pushcarts and playing with a caddie. Their nine-hole averages (40 with push cart, 42 with caddie) were better than when riding in the motor cart (43).

Wolkodoff says that offered proof there could be a benefit to walking the course - the way many golf purists insist the game should be played - that outweighs the benefit of resting while driving to your ball in the cart.

"It gets back to the idea that walking gives you a certain amount of time to think about a shot, to rehearse, go through the stuff," he says. "Where in a golf cart, you're holding on, then, boom, you've got to get up, go to the ball and make a decision pretty quickly."

But the benefit of walking didn't outweigh the stress of looping the bag on and off your shoulder 40 or 50 times and lugging it around the course over the span of two hours. The average scores for the walk-and-carry rounds were 45.

"Some people say, 'I play better golf when I'm carrying'," Wolkodoff says. "But this study says, 'No. A carry bag is not necessarily better.' It's not an intuitive thought for people."

Players reached their peak heart rates at the top of two taxing, uphill holes. When they were carrying or pushing the cart, the peak heart rates went past their anaerobic thresholds, and Wolkodoff noticed a marked spike in scoring on the tougher of the two holes under these circumstances.

He attributes it to the buildup in lactic acid, which decreases fine motor skills.